B C 262 A B 24 Gerund Other constructions with the above verbs Starred verbs can also take that-clauses (see 346 ). For suggest and propose ( = suggest) , see 289. mean/propose ( = intend) take the infinitive (see 269 ). For hate, like, love, prefer, see 295. For other verbs taking gerund or infinitive, see chapter 25. dread + infinitive is used in 'dread to think' : / dread ね切々カ厩な〃 co 並 Examples Of verb 十 gerund sentences: 〃 ad 川″ d ん切 g 川 0 〃り . Avoid 側 - e 切 g. Ⅲ 04 じ 0 げ“〃切 g the カ川加 〃 s な肥 / ″切 g ル″催 s. She d 4 ホ getting 0 . Do ノ〃 g ? 〃れ 4 〃 0 e 4 カ召 d 厖切 g 川〃 0 れ ″切 g 切 4 肥肥切面〃切 I む″切 g 4 肥 4 ッカ 4 れ可 the 川 He が co 川が 4 切 g. He 市 d 〃 7 肥 4 ね示ん getting 肥 〃眦わが可 od 加″〃のが〃 g I 厩げ切 the 々 . / れ 7 4 れれんな / 川ル〃 g his . / C04 〃 7 加ゆ g ん g. lt's れ 0 good ん〃″切 g. なげ e 4 切 g Ⅷんわ切 g ? Verbs 十 possessive adjective/pronoun object 十 gerund If the verb or verb + preposition is followed directly by the gerund, the gerund refers t0 the subject Of the verb: To 川切 s な d 0 4 市〃 g 召ルれ (Tom read it. ) But 迂 we put a possessive adjective or pronoun before the gerund, the gerund refers t0 the person denoted by the possessive adjective/pronoun: He s 0 ”川川 4 市″ . (I had to read it. ) Useful verbS and expressions WhiCh can take either construction are: 市 s 〃 市 d / 〃 OI e 〃 ()e gative) 川 ea 〃 0 加 側〃 e け 川 e 川わ e / resent S 〃 stoP suggest れ / s れ d ゆカ川怩なゆ 0 it's 〃 0 good ん 催 e 's 〃 0 加一 ん ' s 加 / 可 〃市 sl 0 g . 〃召市 sl 川レ川ッ 0 切 g . 231 (For mind, see 263 ; for suggest and propose, see 289. ) He s d 川立川切 g カ川川 0 d わ劜 He 召 d 厖切 g カ s げ 0 襯 0 ル / 励元けカ切 g な召 the 川 e 切 g.

17 The present tenses There are two present tenses ⅲ English: The present conånuous: / 〃川 0 切 g. The simple present: / 0 . The present continuous Form The present continuous tense is formed with the present tense of the 164 A B auxiliary verb be 十 the present participle : Affirmative / 4 川 0 切 g 4 4 0 g / S / ″な 0 切 g 4 4 0 g 4 尾肥 0 g Ne gative / 〃川〃 0 g 4 4 〃房 0 切 g 加 / S 加 / ″な〃 0 g we are 0 ー 0 / 々 / れ g 4 4 れ尻 0 切 g り 4 尾〃 0 g lnterrogative 〃川 / 0 g? な / S / ″肥 0 切 g ? 〃 0 g. 2 Negative interrogative: 川 / 〃房 0 切 g. 2 4 〃房肥 0 g ? なん召〃 0 切 g. 2 etc. Contractions: the verb be can be contracted as shown in 102 B , SO the present continuous Of any verb can be contracted: Affirmative / 切肥 0 g 4 0 g Negative l'm 〃房 0 g Negative interrogative 4 〃 04 〃れ 7 0 切 g 4 〃 7 4 0 切 g ? なれ 7 ん 0 g ? etc. ん 's れ房 e な〃 7 0 切 g etc. 's 0 切 g etc. NOte the irregular contraction 4 〃 7 〃 for 〃川 / 〃 Ot? lnterrogaåve contractions: am, iS, are may be contracted as shown ⅲ 104 B: ーッ ' s 0 g. 2 Ⅳ ' ″肥 0 g ? 153

259 A B 260 A 24 Gerund Gerunds after prepositions (see also 98 ) When a verb is placed immediately after a preposition the gerund form must be used: 面厖 s ー鈔 g ? / ん 4 〃 0 0 り〃 0 〃ねカ厖れ g 4 / s 4g4 切 . She な可川わ g. He な g00 市 , 切 g. / ' 川〃尻劭 0 ga 川わ〃〃 g. / 切 0 4 4 ん s g. He 肥万〃 / g d 翔〃々切 4 召可 4 れ / ' 川 4g4 切 ) ga 切 g ″切 / s g 0 g. / 切 fed ゆ 4 〃 g. (colloquial) T んなな 4 ol / 0 加〃切 g . Do 4 元 el 〃 go 切 gout? She 市 s ゆカ川怩 s g ・ ル厩 4 わ 0 砒朝 g ″加〃〃 d co 切 g ″ I 厩げ ? 〃な々 g 可川川 zg. / ' 川 s 催んか〃 g 肥 4 ″切 g. T ん召 sc ゆ sliding 面〃 4 川加 . Ⅳん ad d な 4 万〃市 4 加切 g が 4 . 物 4 0 川可 4 召既 / わ励砒 g so 襯共 ル s. が可 starting la カ召 4 〃 / d 切〃襯 e. A 尾〃 7 4 切 s d 切川 4 々 g 川 0 〃 .2 T ん召 's 〃 0 カ房切 4 ″ g. A number Of verb + preposition/adverb combinations ( ・ phrasal verbs ' ) take the gerund. The most common Of these are be for/against, care for, give up, keep on, leave 0 100k forward tO, put 0 see about, take to. (For go on, see 363. ) E 怩〃召 dogs left 0 厖切 g. / 〃川 Z00 々切 g 知 4 川召カげ . 〃ね 0 々ね〃 g g ゆ切 the 川襯召可召厩 . The word to This word often causes confusion as it can be either (A) a part Of an infinitive, or (B) a preposition. t0 placed after the auxiliary verbs be, have, ought, used and after going ( ⅲ expressions such as ・ the be going tO form') is part Of the infinitive 0f the following verb and is only added t0 remind students that the preceding verb takes the full infinitive , i. e. the infinitive with tO. to is often placed after hate, hope, intend, would like/love, mean, plan, try, want and some Others (see 24 の tO avoid repetition Of an infinitive already mentione d : の″わ s ~ の / 川 so 襯のわ″ 0 カ as 229

96 9 Prepositions Prepositions used with adjectives and participles Certain adjectives and past participles used as adjectives can be followed by a preposition 十 noun/gerund. (For verbs + prepositions, see 97. ) Usually particular adje ctive s and participle s re quire particular prepositions. Some Of these are gwen below; Others can be found by consulting a good dictionary , which after any adj e ctive will give the prepositons that can be used with it. about, at, for, in, Of, on, tO, with used with certain adjectives and participle s : 勧 s 催わ切 CO 切 g c ね襯 (see 163 ) 4 可 ( 27 B, 271 ) 4 あ知 / わ 0 ( 27 C) 〃Ⅷ ( 27 F) bad 厩加 / c 万厩可 面。加バ 27 A) 召ゆ os ね 怩 d 研 good 切 s d 切 keen 0 〃 れ e 04S 0 / 0 肥切 g ( 27 A) が s d 可 s 加 e 知剏 0 s 知 / わ 0 ( 27 B) successful / 〃 sus 力なあ S 0 / ( 163 ) He as 4 房 0 切 his わ 00 々 . She な 4 4 〃 / S / 可召 . cco 切 g TO 川 it's 2.3 り . (Tom says it's 2.30. ) 翫な厖 d な 00a じ ss. (a bad/good player) 〃切 g な厖 d な側 d / 既 (unhealthy/healthy) T ん 4 怩々れ 0 〃 go 既 D 切 g s. 加 I ″ 4 〃勧ル 4 万 . The 川 4 ge 川 e な〃房 s カ 0 ル / 4 れル s ルア customers ca . / 切 s 催面んわの雇 (I pity him. ) / 切 s り , 知 7 市れ g / をな . (apology) / 切 s 催り , わ 0 ″厖〃 c をな . (apology or regret) (For go / 々切イ etc. + of, was ん切 d ″わ盟″ , see 26 B. ) 102

202 A B 19 Future For example, imagme that ⅲ (b) above a friend, Tom, joins Bill before his food has arrived: TOM: 厩 4 ん〃 g な 0 g カ 4 怩 .2 BILL: / ' 川ん 4 れ g な 0 g ねん 4 4 々 . Similarly, at a later time, in: (c) Ann might say : To 川な d れ g 川 e な 0 切 g ね d 厖怩 me ねゆ 0 k 厩 . (d) Mary, however, could only say: / 切 going ね 4 肥げ these ルね . (She hasn't made an arrangement with anybody. ) (e) Paul, similarly, could say: / 切 go 切 g ね sell 召 car though when he finds a buyer he can say: / 切“〃 g the れ (f) AIan, however, could say: even though this is, as yet, only a decision. (See 202 B , D. ) (For will compared to be going to, see 205. ) The present continuous as a future form Note that the time must be mentioned, or have been mentioned, as otherwise there may be confusion between present and future. The present continuous can express a definite arrangement in the near future: l'm 々切 g 4 4 川切 Oc ねわげ implies that I have entered for it; and 召励 4 れ d Bill 4 襯召可切 g れ implies that B0b and Bill have arranged this. If there has merely been an expression Of intention, as in 201 (d) and (e) above, we use the be going t0 form. But with verbs Of movement from one place tO another, e. g. 4 / れ怩 , CO 川の d 厖怩 , ア go, ル 4 , s , 怩 I , verbs indicating position, e. g. , 川 4 切 , and the verbs 面 and ん〃怩 (f00d or drink) , the present continuous can be used more dely. lt can express a decision or plan without any de finite arrange me nt. Alan ⅲ 201 (f) can the refore say l'm going 加川 e ね厩〃切 I 切 g ね川 g even before he has arranged his journey. Note also: 4 面切 g Sa ? (This is the usual way 0f asking peopie about their plans. ) Possible answers: / 切 going s s 召 . The 怩んわ 04 / s 4 む 0 川翻 g 切ね厩 I 側なル / 切れ面切 g 4 ん切 g. / 切わ襯召 . / 切 going ね ル鹿 . は切れ〃れ g ... . would not be possible. ) 182

38 Phrasal verbs (b) = receive as guests/lodgers: ー砌 04 / わ川面 / 々 0 0 召面催可 the 4 カ 0 召 . The 0 れげ怩々襯 0 々 us 切 4 d ga us 4 d / the . れのル励 0 〃召 sea 研切 a れ g guests 面召 川川 . ( paying guests 切 / them 切 ) understand, receive intO the mind.• / 切ん切 g so 川召切 g else ん泥 she s 加〃ん切 g d / 市 d 〃 7 切肥ん she ツ g. / む 04 が 4 切 the lecture 砒 4 〃 . 0 d な″ / 川 e. 7 れ剏 (d) = make le s s wide ()f clothe s) : / 切 getting 襯ん叮 l' 〃ん 4 怩ね切 my clothes. ( my clothes 切 / them ) take 0 仕 (tr) = remove (when used of clothing 'take 0 俐 is the opposite 0f 'put on'): 〃召 0 々 0 ガ方 is coat ん d the ん 0 e 4 d カ″ 0 4 ん加 e 0 . ( ね方 coato. ガ / ね 0 々れ 0 take 0 仕 (intr) = le ave the ground ()f aeroplane s) : T な 0 ア 4 s 加厩 s ' な 0 ゆ 0 れ s , 加ル 4 なんが 4 s ん切 g 0 ガ 4 d 市れ g. take on (tr) (a) = undertake work : She 4 s so 怩ね lo 4 アげん〃 d / . / 04 れ 7 the j0b. T んり怩 0 襯 . 4 the わ 0 / 0 の (b) = engage staff: T んりん切 go れ万ア 0 s 召知 c . (c) acce pt as an opponent : I'II ou 0 〃わルれな . (l'll play against you. ) / ね 0 ” Mr れ t 厩 d 川 ug んな . 0 々 Mr れ t 0 / ね 0 ん him 0 の take out (tr) = remove, extract: 川 I 〃 0 that s ね加 . 04 the s ね加 0 / れ 04 り The 〃廰 0 04 れ 0 可 / ん take somebody out = entertain them (usually at some public place) : 丑 s 川 4 〃わなわ切 g school 4 / . / ん 0 例 e り 0 ん (and give him a meal ⅲ a restaurant) take over ()r or intr) assume responsibility for, or control Of, ⅲ succession tO somebody else: ル s カ 0 厩れ 0 ' clo 4 イ the s 側〃 〃 0 切 g 0 切 g. Miss S 襯″んな I g get 4 d Miss カ s 〃々切 g 側げ the class/Miss / 0 s 〃厖ん切 g 側催 0 川 Miss S 川″ん (see hand over) take to (tr) (a) = begin a habit. There is usually the impression that the speaker thinks this habit bad or foolish, though this is not necessarily always the case. lt is often used with the gerund: (c) 348

38 Phrasal verbs fall out (intr) = quarrel: ル e ル怩 s 〃 0 ん 0 〃 e 襯 e get e レ 0 ル (proverb; i. e. get back their prope rty) fall through (intr) = fail to materialize ()f plans) : M が〃 go ね G / 元〃川 ug ん厖 e the ル川り 0 厖ん川 0 召ゆ 4 / ん 4 イ加け . feed be fed up (intr) , be fed up with (tr) = be completely bored (slang) : / 切ゆ 4 市れ g , ・ / 切 going ん 0 川 e. feel feel up to (tr) = feel strong enough ()o do something) : / 〃 7 元ゆ〃の切 g the 々加れ加乢 l'll 面″切召川 0 川切 g. fill fill in/up forms etc. complete them: 7 ん ad 川 I 切祀 e forms g 可川 ) カ s 加れ . 仮〃祀 e forms 切加〃 them find find out (tr) = discover as a result of conscious effort: the end / ″ d 0 励厩川川 . The g d 0 the way の面 . の〃 d れ 0 り find someone out = find that he has been doing something wrong (this discovery is usually a surprise because the person has been trusted) : 4 鹿 / 励 g 〃〃 / 川 0 召 s as d 0 . fix up (tr) = arrange: ↑ c ルわん as 4 レの万 d ゆ several matches / s so ル 仮齠 d several matches カ加イ them ゆ ) get about (intr) = circulate; move or travel ⅲ a general sense: The g 房 0 加 had 0 〃召万効切召 s lo and 召怩わ 0 の ga 〃 4 毓切 g ん 0 . He な 4 川ト切 I れ 0 and 7 get 4 わ 0 e 〃 as he used ね . get away (intr) = escape, be free t0 leave: の 0 7 々んん 0 な厖 e starts 切 g 4 んなん〃ん が〃 / get 4 0 川ん川 . 1 ん 4d4 lot 面切 0 加化 4 〃 d 市 d 〃 'tg 4 な . get away with (tr) = perform some illegal or wrong act without being pumshed, usually without even being caught: He 厖 ga 切 gc 加 es 4 〃万 / 加 g 4 ″ん″わ切召 例 he as ug 4 イ sent カ so ル fix get 328

98 A B 99 9 Prepositions Gerunds after prepositions lt has already been stated ⅲ 86 that verbs placed immediately after prepositions must be ⅲ the gerund form: 〃 left 0 カ切 g his 房〃 . She 切 s な d 0 カ g / ん“既 (See also 259. ) A few noun 十 preposition 十 gerund combinations may alSO be noted: There 's 〃 0 カ房切れ g / car 〃 7 カ 4 . Ⅳん砒 ' s the カ房厩可々切 g 〃 7 カ 4 .2 催召 4 4 加ツ I 旒側 d 可 s れ g g his 川切 d. 2 / 4 川切 4 可 g 川切 g e 怩り 0 4 day 0 The only exceptions tO the gerund rule are except and but (prepo sition) , which take the bare infinitive : / c 面加切 g 化が ag . 〃市イ加切 g わ厩 co 川が 4 切 . However, if but is used as a conJunction, it can be followed directly by either full infinitive or gerund: Being ル SO 襯 e 〃襯な ag わル , わ切 g ル〃〃召〃川川厩 わ 0 川召川 0 れ 0 04S. To ル so 川 e 〃川おな〃 g 尾わル , わ厖ル 4 〃召〃川 e etc. Prepositions/adverbs Many words can be used as either prepositions or adverbs : 丑 got 0 ガ the わ s the CO 翔げ . (preposition) He got 0 ガ 4 加 co 川 . (adverb) The most important Of these are above, about, across, along, before, behind, below, besides, by, down, in, near, 0 代 , on, over, past, round, since, through, under, up: T んり e 厖ル s . (preposition) 〃召カ as 面な so 可 0 わ . (adverb) P 催なわ励切 us. (preposition) He 's 4 long わ励切広 (adverb) She cl わ側 the 〃 . (preposition) 物が〃ん〃怩ねじ〃襯わ側催 0. (adverb) ル the 川〃〃 g as 側召ル g 厩召ん 0 川召 . (adverb; here 側催 = finished) The な川〃 d the co 催 . (preposition) CO 川川〃 d 襯 ) の切 g. (adverb) 〃召川れカ the s レ s. (preposition) He 肥 e ゆ切召 I . (adverb) Many of these words are used t0 form phrasal verbs (see chapter 38 ) : The が 4 0 (left the ground) He came 川″〃 (recovered consciousness) 104

165 A B C 166 A B 17 Present tenses The spelling of the present participle When a verb ends in a single e, this e is dropped before ing: 4 , 4 4 切 g ん衂ん切 g 10 怩 , loving except after age, dye and singe : 〃 g 召切 g の切 g singeing and verbs ending in ee.• ag , ag 例れ g see, seetng When a verb of one syllable has one vowel and ends in a single consonant, this consonant is doubled before ing: ん″ , ん襯切 g 川川川〃川ツ g の , s ねカか〃 g Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains only one vowel and ends in a single consonant double this consonant if the stress falls on the last syllable: 川″ , ad 川襯 g 川 g 切〃 g カ阨加所 but 防 dg , わ udg 切 g 催 , 召催 g (stress not on the last syllable). A final I after a single vowel is, however, always doubled: ′ I , 〃〃 g 4 怩 I ユ川〃切 g except in American English. ing can be added tO a verb ending in y without affecting the spelling Of the verb: り , g 召 , e g ん 4 / , ん 4 / 切 g Uses Of the present continuous tense For an action happening now: / 川れ房肥 ea れ g 4 CO as ″な〃 7 CO . ) 4 4 sitting 川 ) s 々 .2 ー ' s 召厖面切 g ? ~ He's れ g ゆ 4 5 加 . For an action happemng about this time but not necessarily at the moment Of speaking: / 川 4 市れ g 4 が S ん 4 乢 (This may mean ・ at the moment 0f speaking' but may alSO mean ・ in a more general sense. ) He なん g F 加ん 4 〃 d I 切 g G . ()e may not be doing either at the moment Of speaking. ) When two continuous tenses having the same subject are jOined by and, the auxiliary may be dropped before the second verb, as in the above example. This applies t0 all pairs Of compound tenses: She as 々″切 g 4 〃 d 〃切 g ね召川市 0. 154

275 A B C 276 A B C 26 Participles go, come, spend, waste, be busy go and come go and come can be followed by the participles 0f verbs 0f physical activity and the verb shop : T んり 4 going 市〃 g を切 g ム 4 市 g. / 切 go 切 gs 加切 g な 4 ア e 川 00 〃 . Come 面加切 g. (For go and come followed by infinitives 0f purpose, see 335. ) spend/waste 十 an expression Of time or money 十 present participle : He ホ加 0 ん侮 day) レ 4 怩〃切 g. He doesn 7 spend 川〃川召ゆ 4 れ g 力なル sso . We 4 ル 4 ガ召翔側れ一 g / ゆ 4 レ the れ He s. カ召厩 4 lot 川 0 川 0 翔た切 g 召ん 04 . be busy + present participle: She な / as わカ々切 g. A present participle phrase replacing a main clause The participle constructions in A and B below are chiefly used in written English. When two actions by the same subject occur simultaneously it is usually po s sible t0 expre s s one Of the m by a pre sent participle. The participle can be before or after the finite verb: He 川肥 . 丑 s 〃 as た = He 川 4 s 市れ g. 〃ん ol the 川加 0 ん 4 d and stretches 側 0 催 the わ 切 the = 丑 01 市 g the 川加渤 0 d , stretches etc. When one action is imme diately followe d by another by the same subject the first action can Often be expressed by a present participle. The participle must be placed first: He 0 加 d the d 川眦 / 4 れ d 0 々 0 4 んげ = 0 加れ切 g the d 川肥催加ね 0 々 0 〃ん催 . She 川な the ゆ催 4 加切 d ね 4 ア可ゆ s = 4 な g the レゆ面 she 加切 d 4 アゆ s. Ⅳ召 0 ガ 04 / s 4 れ d c ゆ 4 g Passage Ta ん切 g 0 ガ 04 / s we c ゆ 0 the カ as ge. lt would seem more logcal here tO use the perfect participle and say 〃 42 切 g 0 加 d , 〃 42 g 川な , 側切 g 々 0 ガ , but this is not necessary except when the use Of the present participle might lead tO ambiguity. Eating his 市れ / 川 0 可 the ん 0 would give the impression that he left the house with his plate ⅲ his hand. Here' therefore, it would be better t0 say 丑切 g れ his 市れれ催 . When the second action forms part Of the first, or is a result Of it, we can express the second action by a present participle: She 肥 0 , s 川川 g the 面催 . 〃召五 / , 04 市 0 怩可 the 添 . / 元〃 , s 昭川ん切 s 面催 d 市″ . (Here we have three actions, the last tWO expressed by participles. ) 241