271 A B C 25 lnfinitive and gerund be afraid ( 00 , be sorry (for), be ashamed (OO be afraid 0f + gerund or gerund + noun/pronoun Here the gerund usually expresses an action which the subject fears may happen. lt is normally an involuntary action : He 怩怩 / s 4 川知 0 . He 肥〃〃 ofgetting c 川川カ . She 4 s lo s 〃な . She な〃可切 g 川 4 . She 市 7 〃ん厖召 she 肥 4 〃可ゆ s 召市ん川 . be afraid + infinitive means that the subject is/was etc. t00 frightened tO perform the action. This is obviously a deliberate action: 翫 was 4 〃川カ . ()o he didn't jump) She 4 カ川並 ()o she kept quiet) be afraid can also be followed by a that-clause. This can express a fear: But, especially in the first person, it can express (usually fairly mild) regret: / 切 4 〃劭 4 り we ん側 7 4 な I . (For l'm afraid so/not, see 347. ) be sorry for + gerund means ・ apologze/regret'. The gerund usually refers tO a previous action but can refer tO an immediately following action: / ' 襯 so / / 川 4 々 g su 4 れ 0 な e la 厩 . / 切 s 催 / 市 s 切 g 4. (now) But / ' 川 so / り市 s 4 would be more usual here. be sorry 十 lnfinitive can express regret or sadness: (See so 26 F. ) Whe n the action expre s sed by the lnfinitive is involuntary , the two actions are almost simultaneous: / s りね see ん Z00 を so 襯 . (When I saw him . . . I was sor . ) When the infinitive refers to a deliberate action, be sorry is the earlier of the two actions and is then very similar to regret (see 268 B) : . is alSO possible. N0te that l'm SO / usually be sorry that . expresses genuine regret, but that with l'm SO / り say 厩 or / ' 川 可 4 the regret may be very faint, even perfunctory. be ashamed of + gerund or be ashamed of yourself etc. for + gerund The gerund here refers to a previous action: 物 4 04 〃 4 川可切 g ね川 or You 04 4 4 川可“グ知 / 〃 g ねん . ln be ashamed 十 infinitive, the infinltive usually refers tO a subsequent action: / 切 4 〃 d ね〃″ん厩なゆ cost. would be ashamed + infinitive often implies that the subject's feelings (will) prevent him from performlng the action: l'd 4 4 川 4 毓 / ゆ . ()o I won't/wouldn't ask) 238
C 185 A B 18 Past and perfect tenses lt can alSO be used for actions which occur further back in the past, provided the connexlon with the present is still maintained, that is that the action could be repeated in the present: / ん 4 怩 s 〃肥 ol 怩 s 厩知 implies that it is still possible tO see them, and カん〃 S 川渤ん as 肥″〃〃″襯わ催可 0 s れ implies that JOhn Smith is still alive and can write more. lf, however, the wolves have been killed off and John Smith is dead we would say: / S 〃肥 0 ん / れ 4 な es ー 0 〃 C 召 / Se 膨 / al 川召 S or / ″ see 肥 0 んん e 尾 and カん〃 S 川″ん肥川 4 〃川わげ可 0 s れ . NOte also that when we use the present perfect in this way we are not necessarily thinking Of any one particular action (the action may have occurred several times) or Of the exact time when the action was performed. If we are thinking 0f one particular action performed at a particular time we are more likely tO use the simple past. The present perfect used for actions occurring ln This may be expressed by the following diagram: an incomplete periOd TS Each X represents an action. TS stands for ・ time of speaking' ⅲ the present. 167 My 川 c10 市市 go 0 ガな川 0 川 g. my alarm clock normally goes 0ff at six, I might say at breakfast: certain part Of our incomplete periOd we use the simple past tense. If But if we know that an action usually happens at a certain time or ln a Yes, / ' 怩 s 〃ん川 d の ,. ()t some time during the day) 〃 4 怩 s れ川 d ? ()t any time tOday) ~ Yes, / ん〃怩 / this period: the action happened or didn't happen at some undefined time during The present perfect used with an incomplete peri0d 0f time implies that ()t 6 p. m. ) / 市れ 7 see TO 襯肱な〃アげ加 0 ル ()t 4 p. m. ) / ん 4 〃 7 “ TO 川な〃アげ加 0 ル Similarly, な〃アげ加 0 〃 will end at about five o'clock: ()t 2 p. m. ) TO 川川〃 g ゆ召〃川召 s な川 0 川 g. ()t 11 a. m. ) TO 川ん as 川〃 g ゆ e 〃川な川 0 川切 g 〃の . penod and actions occurring in it must be put intO the simple past: about one o'clock, because after that な川 0 川切 g becomes a completed Note that the present perfect can be used with な襯 0 川わ tg only up t0 4 アげ〃 00 〃ん怩〃切 g / 肥化々 / 川 0 んな / / etc. An incomplete period may be indicated by d or な川 0 川切 g /
273 A B C D 274 A B 26 Participles Present participle after verbs Of sensation The basic verbs of sensation see, hear, feel, smell, and the verbs listen (t0) , notice and watch can be followed by Object + present participle: / see ん川カ〃切 g 川 ) ん 04 召怩り d 〃共 D 7 4 ん / the clo s 〃 g. 2 / ″ / s 靃切 g. She smelt so 川ん切 g わ翔切 g 4 d 覊 s 襯 0 んれ s 切 g. / 砒記召川 / 切 g the が . The action in the present participle may be either complete or incomplete: / 覊ん川勧〃〃 g g 召加 el could mean that I watched the wh01e action or that I saw only part 0f it. see, hear, feel and sometimes listen (tO), notice and watch can also be followed by object + bare infinitive : 覊ん I 怩召加 use. The infinitive implies that the action is complete. / sa 肥川 4 〃 ge 召 ん I means that I saw the whole action. Companson Of the tWO forms The participle is the more generally useful as it can express b0th complete and incomplete actions. But the infinitive is useful when we want tO emphasize that the action is complete. lt is also neater than the participle When there iS a succession Of actions: / 川召げ the 川 0 川 , oc 々 4 d 川催 , 々 0 4 面 cu 川 e , ln the passive the full infinitive is used after verbs Of the senses: He as 加 4 say 4 加川切なん ad わわ . catch, find, leave + Object + present participle catch/find: / ん加川 s 4 〃川 ) ゆが . (I found them doing this. ) 〃 s な s ad 切 g ん催市 , she ' 〃厖 0 . The action expressed by the participle is always one which displeases the subject. With find there is no feeling of displeasure: / 4 〃 d ん川 s れ市召面 = / ん s 〃市れ g / 〃召 s 〃市〃 g 厩 the れ / 4 / れ怩 d. With find the object could be inanimate: 〃 e 〃 d 4 切 g across 川〃 d. leave can be used W1th a participle : 月ん I ね召励 = 〃召肥 as I B0b 肥ん / ルア . 240
E 180 A B C 181 18 Past and perfect tenses the action in the simple past and probably continued after it. The diagram may help tO show this relationship. The action in the simple past is indicated by X. Compare this combination with a combination of tWO simple past tenses, WhiCh normally indicates successive actions : 召〃ん sa 肥襯んカん催面肥ル We use the continuous tense ⅲ descriptions. Note the combination of description (past continuous) with narrative (simple past) : A 00d 五肥わ 4 翔 g 0 〃 the んカ , 4 れ d 4 cat s ルゆ切 g 0 厩可″ . AgirI 〃 s が切 g e が〃加 4 〃 d 〃 s ) singingsoftly んげ既立 d 〃催 e 4 々加 the 面 . The girl s ね が切 g. The む 0 ゆ . Other uses of the past continuous This tense can be used as a past equivalent of the present continuous: Direct speech: 〃召 , 7 4 川 living 切ん 0 れ面〃 . lndirect speech: 丑 sa カ召肥 living 切ん 0 面ル Just as the present continuous can be used to express a definite future arrange ment : / 切ル 4 れ g ん厩 . / ' 怩 got 川がな々 . SO the past continuous can express this sort of future in the past: fle 肥〃 s わカ“々切 g , / as leaving 厩を . (The decision to leave had been made some time previously. ) The past continuous with always: 〃召 as s 〃 g g 川カ . 〃肥 as 肥 s 0 切 g. (See 167 B for present continuous with always. ) Past continuous as an alternative to the simple past The past continuous can be used as an alternative to the simple past to indicate a more casual, less deliberate action: / 肥 as 切 g ね TO 川 0 催 d . The past continuous here glves the impression that the action was in no way unusual or remarkable. lt alSO tends tO remove responsibility from the subject. ln the above example it is not clear who started the conversation, and it does not matter. NOte the contrast with the simple past tense, / ね TO 川 , which indicates that I took the initiative. S imilarly : F 川川知 / six TO 川肥〃 s 肥〃 s カ切 g れ This would indicate that this was a casual, possibly routine action. Compare with: F 川川 4 six To 川加召れ (implying a deliberate action by Tom) NOte that continuous tenses are used only for apparently continuous uninterrupted actions. If we divide the action up, or say how many 164
C 167 A B 1 2 17 Present tenses For a deflnite arrangement in the near future (the most usual way of expressing one lmmediate plans) : / 切川〃〃 g 催ね . He な々 g 川召召レ e. Are 面切 g 4 切 g ね川 0 〃 0 4 ア召川 00 ル P ~ Yes, / ' 川が切 g れれな″ん A 〃ル Note that the time of the action must always be mentioned, as otherwise there might be confusion between present and future meanings. come and go, however, can be used in this way without a time expression. (See 202 B. ) Other possible uses of the present continuous With a point in time to indicate an action which beglns before this point and probably continues after it: A / の〃厖切 g the 厖 . (I start bathing him before six. ) Similarly with a verb in the simple present: They 〃ア〃 g 催召加〃 0 怩 g 切知ホ . The present continuous IS rarely used in this way except in descnptions Of daily routine and in dramatic narrative , but the past continuous is Often combined with a point in time or a verb in the simple past. (See 179 C, E. ) With always: 〃な〃 s losing んなん s. This form is used, chiefly in the affirmative : For a frequently repeated action, usually when the frequency annoys the speaker or seems unreasonable tO him: TO 川な 4 ) s gomg 4 の ' 知肥〃ホ (present continuous) would imply that he goes away very Often, probably tOO often in the speaker's opinion. But it does not necessarily mean that he goes away every weekend. lt is not a literal statement. Compare with always 十 simple present: TO 川 4 / 肥の , s goes 〃肥々 e ホ TO 川 go 4 の , 召怩々 . (a literal statement) l/we + always 十 continuous tense is alSO possible here. The repeated action is then often accidental: For an action WhiCh appears t() be continuous: This sort Of action quite often annoys the speaker but doesn't necessarily d0 so: 〃 's 肥 s 〃市〃 g could imply that he spends t00 much time reading, but could alSO be said in a tone Of approval. The first person could be used here t00. The action then, like the other actions here in 2 , is usually deliberate. 155
200 201 19 Future (c) The simple present is sometimes used where the continuous would sound a bit clumsy, e. g. when speaking of a series of proposed future actions, like plans for a journey; i. e. we say: We I 砒 six, 4 / 切 D わ〃れ厩れ 4 〃 d the が 4 〃 e 0 れ . instead Of: We 4 I 切 g six, 4 / 〃 g 切のれ 4 d 々切 g the が 4 0 れ . NOte, however, that in a sentence such as ー ) , 〃〃 / 〃ル 4 es ー six we are using the simple present for a habitual action. Here, therefore, the simple present is not replaceable by the continuous. A note on the meaning Of future with intention When we say that a form expresses future with intention we mean that it expresses a future action which will be undertaken by the speaker in accordance with his wishes. will + infinitive and the be going to form can be used ⅲ this way. When we say that a form expresses future without intention we mean that it merely states that a certain action will happen. We don't know whether it was arranged by the subject or by some other person and we don't know what the subject thinks of it. The present tense and the future continuous tense can be used ⅲ thiS way. The present continuous tense in the second or third person conveys no idea Of intention, though there may be a hint of intention when the first person iS used. The future simple (apart from will used as in 201 , 205 ) normally conveys no idea of intention; but see shall, 208 B , 234. will + infinitive used to express intention at the moment of decision (see 用 so 205 E2 and E3) (a) The カ加なれれ g 切 g. ~ / ' 〃 4 れ s / ″ . (b) BILL ()o waiter) : / ' 〃ん 4 4 s 4 々 , が . ( 04 〃 is also possible. See 210 B. ) (c) ANN: l'd / 0 催〃豆 / . TOM: Do れ 7 わ 0 . / ' 〃 d 怩 (d) MARY (looking at a pile of letters) : / ' 〃 4 げ e 川厩 . (e) PAUL (who is getting fat and tired of paying parking fines) : (D ALAN ()n receiving a telegram saying his father is ill) : / ' 〃 go ん 0 川 e ね lg 厩″ ' 〃ル 4 ね厩 . For unpremeditated actions, as above , we must use will (normally contracted t0 ' Ⅱ ). But note that if after his decision the speaker mentions the acåon again, he will not use will, but be going tO or the present continuous. ()e going tO is always possible ; the present continuous has a more restricted use. See 202. ) 181
275 A B C 276 A B C 26 Participles go, come, spend, waste, be busy go and come go and come can be followed by the participles 0f verbs 0f physical activity and the verb shop : T んり 4 going 市〃 g を切 g ム 4 市 g. / 切 go 切 gs 加切 g な 4 ア e 川 00 〃 . Come 面加切 g. (For go and come followed by infinitives 0f purpose, see 335. ) spend/waste 十 an expression Of time or money 十 present participle : He ホ加 0 ん侮 day) レ 4 怩〃切 g. He doesn 7 spend 川〃川召ゆ 4 れ g 力なル sso . We 4 ル 4 ガ召翔側れ一 g / ゆ 4 レ the れ He s. カ召厩 4 lot 川 0 川 0 翔た切 g 召ん 04 . be busy + present participle: She な / as わカ々切 g. A present participle phrase replacing a main clause The participle constructions in A and B below are chiefly used in written English. When two actions by the same subject occur simultaneously it is usually po s sible t0 expre s s one Of the m by a pre sent participle. The participle can be before or after the finite verb: He 川肥 . 丑 s 〃 as た = He 川 4 s 市れ g. 〃ん ol the 川加 0 ん 4 d and stretches 側 0 催 the わ 切 the = 丑 01 市 g the 川加渤 0 d , stretches etc. When one action is imme diately followe d by another by the same subject the first action can Often be expressed by a present participle. The participle must be placed first: He 0 加 d the d 川眦 / 4 れ d 0 々 0 4 んげ = 0 加れ切 g the d 川肥催加ね 0 々 0 〃ん催 . She 川な the ゆ催 4 加切 d ね 4 ア可ゆ s = 4 な g the レゆ面 she 加切 d 4 アゆ s. Ⅳ召 0 ガ 04 / s 4 れ d c ゆ 4 g Passage Ta ん切 g 0 ガ 04 / s we c ゆ 0 the カ as ge. lt would seem more logcal here tO use the perfect participle and say 〃 42 切 g 0 加 d , 〃 42 g 川な , 側切 g 々 0 ガ , but this is not necessary except when the use Of the present participle might lead tO ambiguity. Eating his 市れ / 川 0 可 the ん 0 would give the impression that he left the house with his plate ⅲ his hand. Here' therefore, it would be better t0 say 丑切 g れ his 市れれ催 . When the second action forms part Of the first, or is a result Of it, we can express the second action by a present participle: She 肥 0 , s 川川 g the 面催 . 〃召五 / , 04 市 0 怩可 the 添 . / 元〃 , s 昭川ん切 s 面催 d 市″ . (Here we have three actions, the last tWO expressed by participles. ) 241
C D 187 A 18 Past and perfect tenses This type of action could be expressed by a diagram thus : TS Verbs Of knowing, believing and understanding cannot be used in the present perfect except as shown in A above: / ん 4 怩例厖 I 怩 d レ eo . SO recent actions, even When the time iS not mentioned, must be expressed by the simple past: Did 4 々〃 0 厩ん召肥 as going 厖川 4 ″ d ? ( 〃〃怩ん i0 〃 would not be possible) and 〃 0. リ市 d れ 7 々加〃肥げ召ん 0 〃面ル〃 0 んカ〃怩 think and wonder however can be used as in 185 D: / ん〃怩 so 川召〃川 0 g / s 加 4 ん 4 怩砌れ g 川 d. / ん〃怩 0 ア 0 〃尾 d 加市 d 〃 7 川〃 / 加れ NOte that questions/answers such as: 〃 0 肥 long ん 4 怩 4 わ〃加 ? ~ / ' 怩わ〃加 stx 川 0 〃 s will normally be followed by general inquines in the present perfect about actions occumng within the periOd mentioned, which is regarded as an incomplete periOd Of time: TS 170 Ⅲ召 ' 怩わ〃加 4 〃加剏 0 s. for can sometimes be omitted, especially after , 〃 and 4 ″ : Ⅳ召ん 4 怩〃ツ切ん 0 〃面〃知 / 〃異 4 . (and still live there) intO the present: for used with the present perfect denotes a period of time extending Ⅳ召〃ツ召尾〃〃 / s. (but we don't live there now) Of time : for used with the simple past tense denotes a terminated period for is used with a period of time: 知 six days, / 4 ん g 〃川召 . The present perfect used with for and since Yes, / 川〃 0 〃 M の / な川 0 川切 g. No, / ん 4 怩〃 7 川〃 ) or Yes, / 厩催召肥々 . Yes, / ん 4 他〃ね the 0 etc. ) or otherwise they will be in the simple past tense: The answers will be in the same tense if no time iS mentioned, 〃 4 怩川〃切 4 s 0 况〃 04 〃 4 わ / 川川〃加 0 が 〃 4 怩″わ〃ね the 200 / e 厩尾〃Ⅲ s ィ川 s 滝厖電 s 0 ? because the action Of staying, being etc. , is not yet finished:
177 A 1 2 3 4 B C D 18 Past and perfect tenses Use for the relation of past events lt is used for actions completed in the past at a definite time. lt is therefore used: for a past action when the time is gven: / 襯ん s . as ″市切 7895. or when the time is asked about: Ⅳん e 〃市″川 e ん川 .2 or when the action clearly tOOk place at a definite time even though this time iS not mentioned: The 〃 as 川″ s . 〃 0 肥 did 4 get カわ ? Sometimes the time becomes definite as a result Of a question and answer ⅲ the present perfect: Ⅳ加ん〃怩 4 わ化ル 2 ~ / ' 怩わ〃 the 0 加川 . ~ D e 可″ ? (See 184 A for further examples. ) The simple past tense is used for an action whose time is not glven but which (a) occupied a period 0f time now terminated, or (b) occurred at a moment in a periOd Of time now terminated. These may be expressed diagrammatically. TS here stands for time 0f speaking in the present. TS TS Examples 0f type (a) : 162 肥 04 s 側〃げ / 川げ , see chapters 28 , 29. ) (For use of the unreal past after 既 0 g ん , ″な〃襯の 0 〃 , 肥なん , The simple past is used in conditional sentences, type 2 (see 222 ). (For used to indicating past habits , see 162. ) T ん〃側げ d 川〃々切召 . 〃召 4 s 電 " / 4 〃川わ〃 4. The simple past tense is also used for a past habit: (see 182-4 ). These will be clearer when compared with the present perfect Did 健げ加 4 Ma 4 Ca 〃 sing. フ My g 川〃市〃 0 げ 0 化 s 〃肥 Q ″〃防け 0 4. Examples 0f type (b) : She 〃怩 d 0 川〃んれ g 〃川 (but she is not living there now) there now) 〃肥 0 切〃ん 4 “ s. (but he does not work
C D E 29 care, like, love, hate, prefer, wish WiSh 十 would here can express interest ⅲ the subject's willingness/unwillingness tO perform an action in the present. This is usually a habitual action. / 厖 0 d ル川 0 0 ア The subject of wish cannot be the same as the subject Of would, as this would be illogical. We cannot therefore have I wish + I would. wish 十 subject 十 would can SO be used tO express dissatisfaction with the present and a wish for change in the future: / 加 04 4 肥催川ル″げ . (l have been waiting for an answer for a long time. ) / 0 ″ 4 g 召召川 . (l'm tired 0f eating sausages. ) / 肥 0 ″ s ねカ川〃々切 g わ 0 川わ s. But the speaker is normally not very hopeful that the change will take place , and Often, as in the third example above , has no hope at all. As in B above, wish 十 subject + would here is restricted tO actions where change is possible, and wish and would cannot have the same subject. When there is a personal subject, the action is in the subject's control and the idea 0f willingness/unwillingness is still present, but wish + subject 十 would here can someåmes be used With inanimate subjects: / ″肥 04 s ねカ切切 g. / なん s 〃 04 CO 川召 0 . / なんレ 4 切 04 じ 0 川 e. wish + subject + would here is rather like would like , but would like is not restricted tO actions where change is possible and does not imply dissatisfaction with the present situation. AISO the would like construction does not imply any lack 0f hope: / 0 ″〃女ん s の 4 (l want him t0 study art/l hope he will study art. ) / 肥なん召げ s の 4 (Peter has presumably refused t0 d0 this. ) I wish you would is a possible request form. Here there is no feeling that the person addressed will refuse tO perform the request' but there is Often a feeling that this person is annoying or disappointing the speaker in some way: / 肥なん 0 d ん e ゆ川召 0ften implies ・ You should have offered t0 help me ' , and / 04 ん″川川 g / 〃ゆ〃〃 g ん g s 〃 4 s would imply that the speaker was irritated by the noise/the interruptions/the silly questions. However, the expression I WiSh you would can be used ⅲ answer tO an offer 0f help, and does not then imply any dissatisfaction: 立〃〃 / 加ゆ々 CO 厩 s ? ~ / s ん 04 . (l'd be glad 0f your help. ) if only + would can replace wish + would in B and C above. lt cannot be used for requests as in D. if only is more dramatic than wish: 〃 0 〃りん 0 切 04 / カ 4 262