C 95 A 9 Prepositions With the verb put, however, either in or into can be used: He カ his カ 4 〃ホ切 / 切んな加 c な . in can alSO be an adverb.• CO 川 = E . Get 切 (into the car). on and ontO on can be used for bOth position and movement: He as sitting 0 〃んな case. S 加元〃 0 〃 the ん襯 s. / な〃 4 川 0 the d00 れ He 眦 0 わ . ont0 can be used (chiefly 0f people and animals) when there is move me nt involving a change Of le vel : people 川 d 0 0 召レ川 0 忝 . We I ん 0 0 召わル . The cat ル川カ e 0 the 川な厩召ゆル . on can alSO be an adverb: GO 0 〃 . CO 川召 0 %. above, over, under, below, beneath etc. above and over above (preposiåon and adverb) and over (preposition) can both mean ・ higher than' and sometimes either can be used: The 0 がん 0 怩 / 4 / 側催 . Flags 4 膨 d 0 怩 / 0 怩 / 04 4 ホ . But over can also mean 'covenng , ・ on the other side Of' , 'from one side to the other' : Ⅳカ 4 / ug 側げ川 . ん召な 4 わ dg 召 0 e the 召れ all over 十 noun/pronoun can mean ln every part Of' : He んル〃ホ 4 〃側げ the Ⅷ月 d. above can have none Of these meamngs. over can mean 'more than' or ・ higher than'. above can mean ・ higher than' 0 司 y. across' and BOth can mean ・ higher ⅲ rank '. But He な 0 / 川召 would normally mean ・ He is my immediate supenor' , ・ He supervises my work'. above would not necessarily have this meamng. If we have a bridge over a nver, 〃わ 0 召 bridge means ・ upstream'. over can be used with meals/food/drink: ん 4 4 側催 4 cuP 4. (while drinking te a) ln the combination take 十 a time expression 十 over 十 noun/pronoun, over can mean 'tO do/finish' etc. : He 面召 s が 4 long 側ル加ん / eat his ル加ん . He ages 側げカわ . ()e took ages t0 finish it. ) above can alSO be an adjective or adverb meamng ・ earlier' ()n a bOOk, article e tc. ) : 召 4 わ 0 address (the previously mentioned address) see B 4 わ 0 怩 (the previously mentioned section B) 99

B C 130 12 Permission and possibility Second person Here may is chiefly used when the speaker is gving permlssion. 04 川カ 4 ん催 e means ・ I give you permission to park'. lt does not normally me an ・ The police etc. allow you to park ' or ・ You have a right t0 park'. can can be used as an informal alternative to may here. But it can also be used tO express the idea of having permssion. Y04 〃カ〃 can mean ・ I allow it/The police allow it/You have a right to park here '. Similarly 物〃加 0 わ側ん 0 川″ can mean ・ I allow it/The library allows it' and Yo れ 7 eat れなん切〃わ川 can mean 'I don't allow it/The librarian doesn't ow it' or ・ lt isn't the proper thing t0 d0 '. could can be used When there iS an idea Of condition: could is also used ⅲ indirect speech introduced by a verb ⅲ a past tense: 召 / co 召んなカ加 . Third person may can be used as in B above when the speaker is g1Ving permssion: He 川ん川ツれ (I give him permssion to take it. ) T ん川カ加 the 0 加化 4 〃 d 怩召 the 〃 . (l give them permlssion. ) But it is chiefly used in impersonal statements concermng authority and permsslon.• 化 4 切川 s 加 es 4 カ 0 〃 0 加じげ ( = has the right (o) 々 〃 d / ねん召 4 わ厩ん s た 〃じ 0 〃け , 4 〃 ac s 加 0 〃川 ( = has the right (o) 4 カ加 al. SCRABBLE RULES: 0 ル″催川側 4 アげ″ん as わ〃が〃異 d. ln informal English can/can't would be used: He 〃ん the れ T ん〃カ加 the 0 加化 . A 加〃 0 加 / 〃 4 4 d れた An c 加 0 〃ゆ加 . could or was/were allowed to for permlssion ⅲ the past could can alSO express general permlsslon in the past: 0 Sundays 眦 C04 ( = were allowed (o) stay ゆ . When a particular action was permitted and pe rformed we use was/were allowed instead of could: / ん 4 4 so / as 4 〃 0 ね cross e 0 れれ couldn't however can be used a little more widely than could: We C04 〃 7 われ g 04 / dog 切ね s 川 . The 叩 posite 0f this would be: Ⅳ召眦 4 〃 0 眦 d わ etc. 129

13 can and be able for ability can and be able: forms can is used here in conJunction with be + the adjective able, which supplies the mssing parts Of can and provides an alternative form for the present and past tense. We have therefore the following forms: 136 137 A 1 lnfinitive : ね厖勧ル Past participle : わ〃 4 わル Pre sent Future Past Affirmative C 〃〃 or 4 川〃わル む 04 or 4 わん Negative 厖わル C 〃〃れ 0 ー or C04 〃 or れ房 4 わル lnterrogative 〃厖厖〃わル ? etc. 〃川 / 勧ル ? etc. C04 〃 or 〃 s / 〃わル ? etc. There is only one future form. ln the conditional, however, we have two forms: c 側 and 厖勧 AII other tenses are formed with be able according t0 the rules for ordinary verbs: Present perfect: ん 4 怩わ〃わル Past perfect: ん ad 厖 4 わル Negative interrogative: C04 ん 04 7 4.2 催 0 レ召 7 4 わル ? 襯 0 レ 0 〃 7 ) 04 厖 4 わル .2 etc. can/be/will/shall not and have can be contracted in the usual way: / 肥 as れ 7 ル , 加 0 〃 7 厖 4 わル , / ' 砌勧ル . c an is followe d by the bare infinitive. be able is followed by the full infinitive. can/am able , could/was able can and be able shall/will be able is the only future form: 04 / 厖〃わルね々切 4 元肥召 s. 134

B C D E 268 A 25 lnfinitive and gerund After can/could bear (chiefly used ⅲ the negative) either gerund or infinitive can be used: / 7 厖 4 / 4 ″切 g / ね 4 ″ , ・ but when the infinitive refers tO a deliberate action the expression implies that the subject's feelings prevent(ed) him from performing the action: / co d れ 7 厖 4 / ね〃ん . ()o I didn't) After intend, an infimtive : iS more usual than a gerund.• The infinitive is necessary when we have intend 十 object. This is found only ⅲ formal EngIis h : / 切 d 川ねん e 0 / d ゆ川 e 厩 . With advise, allow, permit, recommend If the person concemed is mentioned we use the infinitive: 〃召 4 s me ね 4 砒 0 加 e. She co 川襯れホん 04S 召肥 / 怩 s ねわ big 朝 iS. But if this person is not mentioned, the gerund is used: 〃召 s g 厩 0 加召 . She co 川襯ホわ切 g 召わ〃 . T ん 7 〃〃 0 肥カ々 g. The gerund after allow and permit cannot have an object, so if we want an allow/permit 十 verb 十 Object construction, we must use the infinitive and mention the person concerned: T ん 4 〃 0 ed e レ〃 s ね the ga 川 g 召 . it needs/requires/wants cah be followed either by the gerund or by the passive infinitive, the gerund being the more usual: T ん grass 〃 s 市れ g or T ん grass e ホ厖 c . regret, remember, forget regret, remember, forget are used with a gerund when the action expressed by the gerund is the earlier action: / g 屋 s 加〃市れ gso 川ん川 0 ) / ' 川 so / / s. 加 so 川 4 襯 0 れ . ( s 加れ市れ g is the first action, g is the second. ) / 川 e 川わ 4 市れ g 勧 0 ″加カ 4 the カ 4 加 . ( 4 市 g is the first action, 川 e 川わげ is the second. ) remember can be followed by possessive adjective/object + gerund: / 川 e 川わ川召イ勺〃切 g me 勧 0 ″ . forget + gerund is possible only when forget is in the negative. lt is often used after will never forget: I'II 怩 / 4 市〃 g 知 / わ 0 川わ s ね知〃 = / ' 〃 4 s 川 e 川わ催液〃 g / わ 0 川房ね〃 . 235

358 359 360 361 A 37 SpeIIing rules The suffix ful When full is added to a word the second I is dropped: 44 + 〃 = わ (but note adverb form 厖 2 ⅵ ) use + 〃 = 4 “ I (but note adverb form e. ル 1 ) If the word to which the suffix is adde d ends ⅲⅡ the se cond lis dropped here also: 毓襯 + 〃 = s を既 . Note 〃 + 万〃 = . Words ending ⅲ y Words ending ⅲ y following a consonant change the y to i before any suffix except ing: ca + ed = carried but ca り + ing = ca 切 g んゆ加 + = ん / + ing = ん / り g y followmg a vowel does not change: + = 励が硼 + = が For plural forms of nouns, see 12. ie and ei The normal rule is that i comes before e except after c: There are however the following exce ptions : 厖 , s but c , 化ゅー ーん e レ d 催面 Hyphens ん e レ ve ん neither S 例 su イ召″ Compound words are forme d by linking two or more words to make one unit. We can write the compound: (a) as one word: s れ d 催 , ん ss 催 , 4 カ (b) as tWO or more words: use 花れ一 4 / cad のカ 0 0 ガな e (c) with a hyphen: 加ん g - カ 4 I - , 0 訪 lt is impossible ⅲ most cases t0 gve a firm rule on when a hyphen should be used. When a compound has become familiar through constant use, the hyphen can be omitted: I , ね 0 わ川 . This, however , doe s not always happen and a native EngIish writer is quite capable 0f writing 房川 , 0 わ翔 or 0 - わ川 at different times. 313

H I J K L 240 A B C D E 23 lnfinitive The infinitive can connect two clauses (see 249 ). The infinitive can sometimes replace relative clauses (see 77 , 250 ). The infinitive can be used after certain nouns (see 251 ). The infinitive can be used with too/enough and certain adjectives/adverbs (see 252 ). An infinitive phrase such as ね〃 the レ , ね cut 4 れ g s ね 0 can be placed at the beginmng or end of a sentence (see 253 ). The infinitive as subject An infimtive or an infinitive phrase can be the subject of the verbs appear, be, seem. The infimtive can be placed first: To I 〃 0 可切面なれ g げ 0 . TO S 〃怩川 0 〃 e. ) 0 S 川 S / 川カ OSS ル . But it is more usual to place the pronoun it first, and move the infinitive or infinitive phrase tO the end of the sentence: ゆカ ad sa わル co 川カ川襯な . な面〃 g げ 0 I 0 可 e 切面乢 seemed / 川カ oss ルね川 0 〃 . it here is known as the introductory it. NOte its use with interrogative S : Ⅲ 0 d ″厖元ねカ加 ? Ⅲ 04 〃 7 ″厖″げ go 0 ル 2 The it construction is necessary here. ル 04 + ね川カ and ル 0 〃 7 + ね go 0 〃 would not be possible. Usually infinitive constructions Of this type consist of it 十 be + adjective + infinitive. (See 26-7. ) But sometimes a noun can be used instead Of an adjective : 肥 04 厖 4 c 厖川レ 4 襯なんがりね cut 面〃 4 襯 0 〃 s. な〃 0 ガ加召ね d 川カ〃 / 切 the . cost/take 十 Object can also be used: 04 co 襯辺あ / years ねわ召 s ル . The gerund can be used instead of the infinitive when the action is being considered in a general sense, but it is always safe tO use an infinitive. When we wish tO refer tO one particular action we must use the infinitive : But な〃房 s 召 4 s 召朝 can be replaced by グ切 g 切″厩あれ s な〃〃 ) s 召 4 . Here the action is considered in a general sense , and either gerund or infimtive is possible. (See alSO 258. ) 213

B 135 A B 12 Permission and possibility ln the interrogative we can use either could or might: / 厩 / C04 加肥 4 ″切 g 知 / 4 s 朝 ()o you think he is waiting . ln the negative, though, there is a difference of meaning between could and may/might: 丑召川 / 襯 d れツ切 g the ん既 (Perhaps he isn't driving the car hims elf. ) But 〃 C04 れ 7 d 霍 g 召川既 expresses a negative deduction. lt means ・ This is impossible. He can't drive'. could + the perfect infinitive of any verb can be used instead of may/might + perfect infinitive (possibility) : / 0 d げん 0 TO 襯々怩肥 4 わ 0 曜 Ann's gag 尾厩 . He 川加ん死 04 ん〃怩 4 ″ 0 川 . (Perhaps he heard it from Jack. ) AS in A above , in the interrogative we can use might or could: C04 / M / lg 盟わのん 4 怩川〃〃川なん ()o you think it is possible that the bank (has) made a mistake?) But in the negative the meanings differ: A 〃〃川厩尻ん〃怩 s 〃 TO 川 ) d の , (perhaps she didn't see him) but A 〃〃 C04 〃 7 ん〃怩 s 〃 TO 川げ d . (negative deduction: perhaps Ann and Tom were in different towns) can used tO express possibility General possibility SubJect 十 can can mean 'it iS possible ' , i. e. circumstances permit (this is quite different from the kind Of possibility expressed by may) : 物れ ski 0 〃 the ん〃な . (There is enough snow. ) Ⅲ〃 7 わ厩加加 0 〃“ C04 厩可 e 〃 s. ()t isn't safe. ) Ca 〃″ get ね肱カ可川 04 〃切 0 day? ()s it possible?) can can alSO express occasional possibility: ユ as ル s 〃厖 % 4 g げ 0 s. (Sometimes it is possible for them tO be quite dangerous/Sometimes they are quite dangerous. ) The & 川添可の側げ〃厖怩川 ug ん ()t is possible for the Straits tO be rough; this sometimes happens. ) could is used in the past: 〃召 CO 厖怩 4 〃 4S0 4 わん . (Sometimes he was unreasonable; this was a possibility. ) can is used ⅲ this way in the present or past tense only, and chiefly in the affirmative. 133

B C D E 9 Prepositions We also send/post letters etc. to people and places. (But see note on home below. ) arrive at/in , get to , reach (without prepo sition) We arrive in a town or country, at or in a village, at any other de stination : 4 所 d 切 4 / 切 Mad 広 / 4 / 怩 d the ん 0 I ゆ 0 れんわ e 加確 oss 川 4 ホ . get tO can be used with any destination, and so can reach: Hegot 召あれノ切〃 e / んな〃〃切 . / 4 ね g ね Berlin わ加 . / the ね力ル e 川側 4 わ〃れ“ . get in ()n = adverb) can mean arrive at a destination'. lt is chiefly used Of trains: e does the 4 切 get 切 .2 (reach the terminus/our station) Note also get there/back (there, back are adverbs). home We can use a verb of motion etc. 十 home without a preposition: 0 々 4 〃ん 04 / ね get ん 0 川 e. T んり e ん 0 召わ . But if home is immediately preceded by a word or phrase a preposition IS necessary: She d んカな ' ん 0 襯 e. We can be/live/stay/work etc. at home, at 十 . . 十 home or . + home. But in cannot be followed directly by home: ln 十 . Y04 れな so れ 0 砒ん 0 川 e or 厩 / 切 / 0 〃ん 0 川 e. Transport: by, on, get in/into/on/onto/off/out of We can travel by car (but in the/my/Tom's car) , by bus/train/ plane/helicopter/hovercraft etc. and by sea/air. We can also travel by a certain route, or by a certain place (though via is more usual) : Ⅲ e the M4. Ⅲ e 4 市れ g. We can walk or go on foot. We can cycle or go on a bicycle or by bicycle. We can ride or go on horseback. We get into a public or private vehicle, or get in (adverb). We get on/onto a public vehicle, or get on (adverb). But we go on board a boat ( = embark). We ge t on/onto a horse /camel/bicycle. We get out of a public or private vehicle, or get out (adverb). We get 0 仕 a public vehicle, a horse, bicycle, etc. , or get 0 仕 (adverb). get in/into/out/out 0f can also be used 0f buildings , ins titutions and countries instead Of go/come/return etc. when there is some difficulty in entenng or leaving. in and out here are used as adverbs. l've あ川ッ々 s ! 〃 0 4 ego 切 g ね g ア / ね get ? (adverb) The ん 0 e な 0 ”万 ! Ⅳ召 had 厖″催 get 側だ (adverb) lt's d な 4 〃ね g 切ね 4 4 / s 加〃面 . 97

23 A B C 24 A B 3 Adjectives the + adjective with a plural meaning blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor, unemployed and certain Other adjectives describing the human character or condition can be preceded by the and used tO represent a class Of persons. These expressions have a plural meaning; they take a plural verb and the pronoun is they: The 加 g 可カ 0 催 , 加 get 催 . the can be used in the same way with national adjectives ending in ch or Sh: the S カ〃 召 Welsh D and can be used similarly with national adjectives ending ⅲ se or ss: the C the Swiss though it is just possible for these t0 have a singular meaning. NOte that the + adjective here refers to a group of people considered in a general sense only. If we wish tO refer tO a particular group, we must add a noun: These s な 4 知 / 市 s 勧 I . The 市 s ル d 川 e 川わげ s 可 0 / 力な催 e let . The F 加ん like eat . The F 加んね 4 s な co 川が〃切 4 わ 0 the 0 広 Some colours can be used in the plural t0 represent people but these take s like nouns: the わ I 燔 , the s. the 十 adjective can occasionally have a singular meamng: c 記ゆげ so の Adjectives 十 one/ones and adjectives used as pronouns MOSt adjectives can be used with the pronouns one/ones, when one/ones represents a previously mentioned noun: Don 7 わ the 加召力が , ・ getthe c 加げ 0 怩 s. 〃 4 厖ホ〃 4 〃 4 〃 soft 0 s. / lo 川 ) 0 襯 e 川 , ・なな 4 new 0 . Similarly with a number + adjective : 〃 4 ん〃怩〃 7 got 4 房が厩の加 0 s 川 4 〃 0 s 〃面 . Adjectives used as pronouns first/second etc. can be used with or without one/ones; i. e. they can be used as adjectives or pronouns: 励 4 切市 d な孵 ~ / 厩 e 万の . the + superlative can be used similarly: To 襯な the ( 川〃わ . The as 0 ル and sometimes the 十 comparative: なん ( 可 these のな the 川 ge But this use Of the comparaåve is considered rather literary, and in informal English a superlative is Often used here instead: ( these 加のな the 川 g 召 st? 40

119 A B 11 be, have, do have + object 十 past participle This construction can be used tO express more neatly sentences of the type ・ I employed someone tO d0 something for me' ; i. e. instead of saying / 召川が 0 d someone clean 川ツ / we can say / カ〃川 cl 怩広 and instead Of / got 〃川 4 〃 sweep 川 c ん川 s ('got' here paid/persuaded etc. ) , we can say / ん ad 川 / 川〃り s s ゆた NOte that this order of words , i. e. have 十 object 十 past participle , must be observed as otherwise the meaning ⅵⅡ be changed: He ん ad his ん 4 レ cut means he employed someone to do it, but He ん〃 d cut his ん 4 レ means that he cut it himself some time before the time Of speaking (past perfect tense). When have is used in this way the negative and interrogative of its present and past tenses are formed with do: DO 4 ん 4 怩 / 切 dO s c ん 4 d e 怩川 0 ん ? ~ / 面 7 ん 4 怩 川 cl 怩の / cl e 川川 e 既 〃切 g 4 わ 0 ん 4 切 g 厩川 I 加 g カ切 . のん 4 怩″ lt can SO be used ⅲ continuous tenses : / 〃 7 々″ね市〃〃げな肥々 / 4 川カ〃 g 川 ) ん 04 カ〃切 d 厩 the 川 0 襯召〃た The ん 0 召な 0 s 川〃 4 〃 he なんな g 4 川 0 川わ襯 0 〃 . get can be used in the same way as have above but is more colloquial. get is alSO used when we mention the person whO performs the action: She got 川 4 召 s 加乢 (She paid/persuaded him tO dig etc. ) (have with a bare infinitive can be used in the same way, e. g. She ん〃 d ん川 dig 4 召 s れ 0 肥 , but the get construction is much more usual ⅲ British English. ) The have + object 十 past participle construction can so be used colloquially tO replace a passive verb, usually one concerning some accident or misfortune: 〃な 4 ″ stolen 加ん〃 d 〃〃〃化が c 々″ can be replaced by 〃ん 4 his ″″ s ル〃ん 4 〃 4 れねが″ , and T 0 んな召催 e 々〃 0 0 切召五 lg, can be replaced by He ん ad 加 0 his 々 0 0 . lt will be seen that, whereas ⅲ A above the subject is the person whO orders the thing t0 be done , here the subject is the person wh0 suffers as a result Of the action. The subject could be a thing: The ん 4 レ川小 / ゆ加 0 eg 〃ル . get can alSO replace have here: The catgot ん催〃 singed 川 ug ん sitting 0 4 / 召万 . (The cat's tail was singed etc. ) 122