Questions be ginning will you/ would you/could you? 319 Commands, requests, advice 320 Other ways of expressing indirect commands 321 let's, let us, let him/them 322 Exclamations and yes and no 323 lndirect speech: mixed types 324 must and needn't 325 32 Conjunctions page 288 C0-ordinating conjunctions 326 besides, so, still, yet etc. 327 Subordinating conjunctions 328 though/although, ⅲ spite of, despite 329 for and because 330 when, while, as to express time 331 as meaning when/while or because/since 332 as, when, while used tO mean although, but, seeing that 333 33 Purpose page 294 Purpose expressed by infinitive 334 lnfinitives after 0 and come 335 Clauses of purpose 336 in case and lest 337 34 CIauses of reason, result, concesslon, companson, time カ ag 召 298 Reason and result/cause 338 Result with such/so . . that 339 CIauses of concession 340 Clauses of comparison 341 Time clauses 342 Contents 35 Noun clauses page 303 Noun clauses as subject 343 that-clauses after certain adj ectives/participles 344 that-clauses aft er nouns 345 Noun clauses as objects 346 SO and not representing a that-clause 347 36 Numerals, dates, and weights and measures Page 307 Cardinal numbers 348 Points about cardinal numbers 349 Ordinal numb ers 350 P0ints about ordinal numbers 351 Dates 352 Weights, length, liquids 353 37 SpeIIing rules page 377 lntroduction 354 Doubling the consonant 355 Omission of a final e 356 Words ending in ce and ge 357 The suffix ful 358 Words ending in y 359 ie and ei 360 Hyphens 361 38 Phrasal verbs カ ag 召 375 lntroduction 362 Verb + preposition/adverb 363 39 List of irregular verbs Page 353 lrregular verbs 364 lndex カ〃 359 13

Contents 6 lnterrogatives: wh-? words and how? Page 77 lnterrogative adj ectives and pronouns 54 Affirmative v erb after wh 0 etc. 55 who, whom, whose, which, what who, whom, which and what as objects 0f prepositions 57 Uses of what 58 which compared with wh0, what lnterrogative adverbs : why, when, where, how 60 ever after who, what etc. 61 56 59 7 possessives, personal and reflexive pronouns: my, mine, l, myself etc. カ ag 召 75 Possessive adjectives and pronouns 62 Agreement and use Of possessive adjectives 63 Possessive pronouns replacing possessive adjectives 十 Personal pronouns 65 Position Of pronoun objects 66 Use of it 67 lndefinite pronouns 68 Use of they/them/their with 64 neither/either, someone etc. 69 Reflexive pronouns 70 Emphasizing pronouns 71 8 Relative pronouns and clauses Page 81 Defining relative clauses 72 Relative pronouns used in defining clauses 73 Defining clauses: persons 74 Defining clause s : things 75 Cleft sentences 76 ReIative clause replaced by infinitive or participle 77 Non-defining relative clauses 78 Non-defining clauses: persons 79 all, bOth, few, most, several etc. + of + whom/which 80 Non-defining clauses: things 81 Connective relative clauses 82 what (relative pron oun) and which (connective relative) 83 Commas in relative clauses 84 whoever, whichever etc. 85 9 Prepositions カ ag 召 97 lntroduction 86 AIternative p osition 87 Omission Of tO and for before indirect objects 88 Use and omission Of tO with verbs Of communication 89 Time and date: at, on, by etc. 90 Forms and patterns 107 Auxiliarie s and modals 106 Auxiliary verbs Negative interrogative 105 requests 104 lnterrogative for questions and Negatives 0f tenses 103 Active tenses 102 Principal parts 101 Ordinary verbs Classes of verbs 100 Page 705 10 lntroduction tO verbs Prepositions/adverbs 99 Gerunds after prepositions 98 Verbs and prepositions 97 adjectives and participles 96 Prepositions used with above, over, under etc. 95 at, in; in, into; on, ontO 94 at, in, by, on, intO etc. 93 Travel and movement: from, tO, afterwards (adverb) 92 Time: to, till/until, after, Time: from, since, for etc. 91 8

35 343 A B C 344 Noun clauses Noun clauses are very 0ften introduced by that and are therefore 0ften called that-clauses. However, not all noun clauses are that-clauses. Noun clauses (that-clauses) as subject Of a sentence Sentences with noun clause subjects usually begin with it (see 67 D) : な市覊カカ切 g TO 川 7 co To 〃 7 co is the subject. The usual construction iS it 十 be/seem 十 adjective 十 noun clause (see 26- の : lt's s. が市 d Passed 4 / 召襯 . lt's strange 厩 e 4 〃 0 1 んな 0 ル . should (see 236 ) : Some adjectives require or can take that . essential 4 れわ 0 の々加 s 添加々加んね面 . An alternative construction iS it 十 be/seem 十 a 十 noun 十 noun clause. Nouns that can be used here include mercy, miracle, nuisance, pity, shame, relief, wonder. a good thing is SO possible. lt's 4 g がり劭 4 り市 d ” 'tg 川所 . lt's 4 Ⅷ / 劭 4 り 4 眦れ 7 〃 . lt's 4 good g 劭りッ眦切 / . that-clauses after certain adjectives/participles The construction here is subject + be + adjective/past participle + noun clause: ー 4 〃 4 り 04 Passed 4 / 4 . This construction can be u se d with (a) adjectives expressmg emotion: glad, pleased, relieved, sorry (see 26 F) (b) adjectives/participles expressmg anxiety, confidence etc. : afraid, anxrous, aware, certain, confident, COIISCIOI-IS, convinced (see 2 の . anxious requires that . . should. / 切 4 / がれ 0 召 till 眦 . Are 4 れ 4 切な the ad ? 303

C D E F 34 Reason, result, concessl()n, comparison, time Clauses with since (see also 187-8 ) When we have a since clause the verb in the main clause is usually in the perfect tense: T んり ' 川 0 d カ 0 召加な e s 切化り got 川〃 / 厖召 d or S 切化り got 川 4 / , ' 襯 0 d ん 04 並な 丑召 'd 〃怩 d 切 4 s 切んな召わ 4 面ル lt's ages s 切化 / 〃 4 怩〃 4 わ 0 . / ん 4 怩が房 I 4 わ 0 厩 s 切化 / ルア college. CIauses with after ln clauses after is often followed by perfect tenses: 4 ″げ / Ⅲん万渤″ , ん 4 れ g ″ゆ . hardly/scarcely . .. when, no sooner . . than (see also 45 ) The 加加 4 〃化ん ad ん 4 り厖 g ″〃ん召 I んな眦 0 or 丑ん〃 d 召加加 rma 加 e 厖 g れん I んな眦厩 0 . scarcely could replace hardly here but is less usual. 〃ん ad 0 S00 / d 翔々 the co. ガ 4 加厖〃ね feel d 川 or Ⅳ 0 s 側怩 / ん ad d 川れ々召 co. ガ〃厖 ga れ元 el d 川 . 〃召れ 0 S00 〃召 earns 4 川 0 he spends ″ or / 川川り加 s 4 川 0 怩加 s カホ″ . (more colloquial) NOte also the sooner . . the sooner: The S00 we s , 召 S00 召 ' 〃厖 e. once ← when, as soon (s) is chiefly used with the present and perfect tenses: 0 化 ' イん召 e , 催 e less 0 0 畆 302

8 72 73 Relative pronouns and clauses There are three kinds 0f relative clauses: defining (see 72- の , non- defining ( 78-81 ) and connective ( 82 ). D e fining relative clau s e s These describe the preceding noun such a way as t0 distinguish it from other nouns Of the same class. A clause Of this kind is essential tO the cle ar unde rstanding Of the noun. ln the sente nce : The 川 4 〃ん 0 me な s 召 d 怩 me his 〃〃襯 e 'who tOld me this' is the relative clause. If we omit this, it is not clear what man we are talking about. NOtice that there is no comma between a noun and a defining relative clause. Defining relative clauses usually follow the + noun, but they can also be u s e d with a/an 十 noun , plural nouns without the and the pronouns all , none, anybody, somebody etc. and those. C lause s following a/an + noun , plural nouns without the and somebody/someone/something sometimes define their noun/pronoun only indire ctly. The noun/pronoun ⅲ the s e cas e s is usually the Object Of a verb or preposition: / 襯 SO 川側 e ん 0 記ん召々〃 e 4. The わ側々な 4 わ 0 agirl ん 0 〃 s ん怩 . Sometimes these clauses are separated from their noun/pronoun bY a word or phrase : T, ん 'S 4 襯ん e ん 0 4 な . / 覊 SO 川 e 切 g 切召カ 4 カ催んん 04 切 But normally relative clauses should be placed directly after their noun or pronoun : The 加な厩川 4 0 怩わ 0 のゆ . She 〃〃れ so 川召切 g 砒 / ん畆 Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows: Subject ん 0 PosseSSlve ん OS For persons For things Object ん 0 川加ん 0 81

20 The sequence of tenses Sub ordinate clau s e s A sentence can contain a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause is a group Of words contaimng a subject and verb and forming part Of a sentence: Ⅳ々 that the bridge was unsafe He g 〃″ね川召 because he trusted me. 丑召川れ s / a 石 we 市 d. なな召が c 一 bought 加 ome. ()n the examples above and in 218 the subordinate clauses are in bold type. ) For ()ther examples see under conditional sentences, relative pronouns and clauses Of purpose, companson, time, result and concession. lt iS not necessary for the student tO make a detailed study 0f clauses or even tO be able tO recognize the different kinds Of clause, but it is necessary for him tO learn tO know which is the verb Of a sentence because 0f the important rule given below. The sequence of tenses When the main verb Of a sentence is ln a past tense, verbs in subordinate clauses are normally ⅲ a past tense alSO. See the starred 218 217 sentences below. Tense of verb ⅲ main clause Present Past Present Past Pre sent Past Pres. perf. Past perf. Present Past 〃召 thatit willrain. 〃 04g that れ would rain. 〃 sees that he has made a mistake. He 覊 that he had made a mistake. / 0 so んな that ー am always ⅱ祀 d. / 0 so 朝証一 was always tired. He ん as れ e 〃〃 that necessary He ん〃イ 4 〃 that was necessary. 〃 says that he going tO eat れ . He sa that he was going tO eat れ . Tense of verb in subordinate Clau se Future simple Conditional Pres. perf. Past perf. Pre sent Past Pre sent Past pres. continuous past continuous Note that infinitive and gerund s are not affe cte d by the above rule : 〃召 4 s go ねん s. 〃召 4 go ん . 〃召〃 s 市れ g. fle I 市 . The rule about sequence Of tenses applies also t0 indirect speech when the introductory verb is ⅲ a past tense. (See chapter 31. ) 195

3 4 78 A B 79 A 8 Relative pronouns and clauses Similarly : 4 が 4 カ川 s 〃れ g が〃 s カ川 s 〃れ g When a verb ⅲ the clause expresses a wish, i. e. when the verb ⅲ the clause IS なん , desire, 4 , ん 0 加 (but not I 旒の : 加ル加訪 / s 加 d ね go 0 〃 the ね / = 加ルなん厩 g ね go 0 召加 / ん 0 加加川 0 加 d 知 / 4 glimPse ハ / = カ 0 が / 4 glimPse 可 e star A non-defining clause (see 78 below) contaming one 0f the above verbs , or any verb 0f knowing or thinking, e. g. 々〃 0 , 切ん , 厖 I ル , カ e , can be similarly replaced by a present participle: げ , ん 0 04g ん川り 04 0 days, . P 催 , 切々切 g 翔 0 d 0 days, 記 . To 川 , 加ね厖カ 4 e 〃 0 切 g e , 0 ガげ . To 川 , e ゆ〃れ g ね厖加 e 〃 0 れ g ん , 0 加 / . Bill, ん 0 4 ed ね襯〃 4 ~ 川カ ss あ 0 れ A 〃れ , ん 0 々 / ね . 召襯 , 切 g 川 0 4 れ ~ 川カ ss 0 〃 A れ〃 , ね 0 んん催ね . Non-defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clau s e s are place d after nouns which are de finite already. They d0 not therefore define the noun, but merely add something tO it by g1Ving some more information about it. Unlike defimng relative clauses, they are not essential ⅲ the sentence and can be omitted without causing confusion. AISO unlike defimng relatives' they are separated from their noun by commas. The pronoun can never be omitted ⅲ a non-defimng relative clause. The construction is fairly formal and more common ⅲ written than in s poken English. Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses: Subject ん 0 Object 肥加川 / PosseSSlve ん OS 召 For persons For things Non-defining relative clauses : persons Subject: wh0 NO other pronoun is possible. NOte the commas: My lg カわ 04 ん 0 な怩カ川な , says げ e 襯厖 0 〃力が れ / , ん ad 厖 d 4 〃 day, d のか昭 the れ 0 ル 85

329 A B C D 330 32 Conjunctions See chapter 21 for conditional clauses, chapter 33 for purpose clauses , chapter 34 for adverb clauses Of reason, result, concession, companson and time, and chapter 35 for noun clauses. Some conJunctions have 、 more than one meamng and may introduce more than one type Of clause. Pairs and groups Of conjunctions which are some time s confuse d with each other or with other parts of speech are dealt with below. though/although and in spite of (preposition phrase) , despite (preposition) TWO opposmg or contrasång statements, such as He ん〃 d 〃 0 and He go わ , could be combined as follows: With but, however or nevertheless as shown ⅲ 327 above: 〃召ん〃 0 al 砺れ s わ加 got the ルわ . 〃召ん 4 イ加 al 砺 , ・眦 / go わ召 go わ , ん 0 ev れ He ん ad 0 I , ・ル ss 加 go わ . With though/although : He got りわ 04g カ加ん 4 イ 0 砺 . A g んん ad 加砺加 go わ . With in spite of/despite 十 noun/pronoun/gerund: s. カん切 g 0 4 ca 砺加 go 加わ . He go わ切 s. が可ん〃れ g れ 0 44Z 0 s. despite = in spite 0f. lt is chiefly used ⅲ newspapers and ⅲ formal English: の召 the severe co d 市 0 4 〃召じ 0 川がル C04 e. N0te that though/although requires subject + verb: and that in spite of/despite requires noun/pronoun or gerund: s が可 e れ d . Some more examples: A 0 g ん″ smelt わル . A 04g ん″ g 催 s . T ん g ん加 as 切加加 . = ル s. が e ん催わル smell . for and because These conjunctions have nearly the same meamng and very 0ften either can be used. lt iS, however, safer tO use because, as a clause introduced by for (which we will call a ・ for-clause') has a more restricted use than a clause introduced by because: 290

C D E F G 328 32 Conjunctions But when two contrasting statements are mentioned, however can mean 'but/nevertheless/all the same : T んりん 4 イが川切ん 4 , わ 0 催 / 加ル ss ん〃 the 襯 e 0 or 0 川げ / 怩加 s ん〃 the e. (See so 329. ) otherwise (adverb of manner) usually comes after the verb: 川励召 usedin 〃眦″辺例 d 川のルい 0 se ( = ⅲ a different way) ″ c 側ん催川 /. otherwise (conjunct) means 'if not/or else': We 襯 / 0 催な召 0 れ 7 get 4 s た or could also be used here ⅲ colloquial English: Ⅳ召厖 ea / 0 / 化なの we 0 れ 'tg 4 seat. so (adverb 0f degree) precedes its adjective/adverb: as so ん房厩 . T んり so . SO (conjunct) precedes its clause: 04 cases ん ea ) , SO we ね 0 々 4 ー 4 % え therefore can be used instead of so ⅲ formal English. lt can come at the beginning of the clause or after the first word or phrase; or before the maln verb: T g が 4 , げ , ん〃 s 厖市 d ん加 が〃ん as ル催召市 d ル the が 4 力厖劭 still and yet can be adverbs of time (see 3 の : The ″ d ”〃 still ゆ . T んんの 7 ん 4 s ゆ加 / た still and yet (conjunct) come at the beginning of clauses. still means 'admitting that/nevertheless'. yet means ・ⅲ spite 0f that/all the same/nevertheless'. 新 / 7 ん , ・ still, む面 so 可ん切 g ね加ゅん . 4 4 e ゆ砌 s ぢ可加 0 が e わ e 劜 though/although normally introduce clauses 0f concession (see 340 ) : T 加 ug ん / A 〃 ug ん e ゆ , 加 0 が e わル e . though (but not although) can also be used t0 link two main clauses. though used ⅲ this way means 'but' or 'yet' and is placed sometimes at the beginning but more often at the end 0f its clause: He says ' 〃カ , 04g ん / がん切ん〃 or 丑召 says ' 〃カ , ・ / がん切々〃 , g ん Subordinating conjunctions : if, that, though/although, unless, When etC. Subordinating conJunctions introduce subordinate adverb or noun clauses and are dealt with ⅲ the chapters on the different types Of clause. 289

B C D 8 Relative pronouns and clauses Clauses such as these, which come immediately after the subject of the main verb, are found mainly ⅲ written EngIish. ln spoken English we would be more likely to say: My 幻 g んわ 04 な怩カ es 川な〃〃 d says . P 可げん 4 厖 d れ切 g 〃〃 day, so ん d e . But clauses placed later ⅲ the sentence, i. e. clauses comng after the Object Of the maln verb, are quite common ln conversation: / ' 切 d A れれ , ん 0 〃 s 切召ア砒 . Clauses f0Ⅱ0 、 a preposition 十 noun are also common: / カ ass 召イ召ル″ね , ん 0 sitting 川 e. Object: whom, who The pronoun cannot be omitted. whom is the correct form, though ′ hO iS sometimes used ⅲ conversation.• P 催 , ん 0 川 e 0 〃召 suspected, d 0 ーね厖切〃 0 化 . AS noted above, a non-defining clause ⅲ this position is unusual ⅲ spoken English. We would be more likely to say: E 0 s s カ 2 催 , わ he e 0 ね厖切 0 化 . But non-defining clauses coming later ⅲ the sentence, i. e. after the Object Of the main verb or after a preposition 十 noun, are common ln conve rsation : She 4 TO , ん 0 川 she I 旒 , as 4 カ〃れ叮わ she got , 肥ん 0 川 she 市が日 . She 切レ od me ん催カ厖 d , ん 0 川 / ん ad 〃 7 襯 . Object Of a preposition: whom The pronoun cannot be omitte d. The pre position is normally place d be fore whom : M カれ , 知 / ん 0 川 / 肥〃 s 0 切 g , as ge 〃催 04S わ 04 ー 0 / 川 e カ川 e れな . lt is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is commonly done ⅲ conversation, and who then usually takes the place 0f whom: MrJones, ん 0 / Ⅷ切 g If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end: れ / , ん 0 川 / がれ s 0 〃 Sundays, 万″げ〃〃 me could become 肥加川 / が s ″ん 0 Sundays, as 万″催 〃れ川 e. PosseSSlve: whose A れ , ん ose 〃 d / 〃 school 4 〃 day, なーり切 g get 4 わ . なな G % ん 0 tlass 〃々切 g. ln convers ation we would probably s ay : Ann's 〃靃 4 厩 school 4 〃 day, so she . なな George. 物〃々 g ん s class. 86