163 16 dare, used used as an adjective: tO be/become/get used tO used can alSO be an adJective meamng accustomed'. lt is then preceded by be, become or get ⅲ any tense and followed by the preposition tO 十 noun/pronoun or gerund: / 川 used ね〃 0 / 4 川 used ね 0 g 切〃川 0 川 . 肥襯 S00 れ get d 召ル c c り加れ . 物″〃 S00 get used ー g 0 〃召ルけれ c り加肥れ . T んり s 〃 g 房 used レ 4 加 c g 4 砺 . T んり soongot ね d 切 go 〃 the ルア . I am used to . etc. is a psychological statement. / 〃襯 used ね 0 / 々 / 〃 g / 〃 4 れ 0 な / 00 川 means that I have worked in a noisy room, SO the noise doesn't bother me; I don't mind it. 必 0 示〃 S00 〃 get e ね ー切 g 0 レなー召れ means that after you have used them for a while you will find them quite easy tO use. Very often / 切総ね″ has the meaning ・ I don't mind it/lt doesn't me any trouble' , as in the above examples. But it can work the Other way. lmagne our canteen serves only tea with its meals. A Frenchman , ne wly arrive d from France , might say : / 切ね切 e 川ッ川な , so / 五〃 d 召“加加 s 川催 撝厩な万 g. DO not confuse subject + be/become/get + used tO with subject + used t0 (see 162 ) . ln the first, used is an adjective and to is a preposition. ln the second, used is a verb and to is part of the following lnfinitive. DO not confuse these forms with the regular verb to use /ju:z/ meamng ・ e mploy '. 152
162 A B 1 2 16 dare, used used Form used is the past tense Of a defective verb which has no present tense. Affirmative : d for all persons Negative : 召 d 〃尻ん s 7 for all persons lnterrogative: used e / り ? etc. Negative interrogative : used ん sed 〃 7 ? etc. Ne gative and interrogative can SO be formed with di d : 市 d use ね ? 市 d れ 7 use ? 市 d 〃 7 ね ThiS iS a more informal form, common lll conversaåon. used is followed by the んⅡ infinitive, and t0 remind students 0f this it is 0ften referred tO as used t0 (just as have used for obligation is referred tO as have tO). Use used iS used: TO express a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the pre s ent : / s 襯 0 ka s , ・ 0 肥 / s 川 0 4 カゆ e. He 記ね d 々わ叮 0 肥加 d 〃怩 . She e 7 〃 To 川わ she 〃 s ん加 or She 市 s 〃 To 川わ she 44 〃 s 川加乢 used is not normally stressed, but it can be stressed if the speaker wishes tO emphasize the contrast between past and present. TO express a past rouåne or pattern. Here we are not making a contrast between past and present; we are merely describing someone's routine during a certain periOd. Very Often there iS a succession Of actions. used tO here is replaceable by would (but would cannot replace used tO for a discontinued habit etc. as ⅲ 1 above). used here is always unstressed. To 襯 d Ann 召 4 g 川 4 / co ゆル . E 川 0 川切 g TO 川 々な s Ann 4 d set 0 ガ / 0 . A れね stand 砒 the 切面 and 4 good わ . 例 g she 召イ e な 0 襯召ん川 川 e 4 〃 d 々んね〃ん催 0 んな d . If we use would we have: E 怩襯 0 川 g To 川Ⅷ 4 々 A れ〃 4 d set 0 ガ 0 . A れれ 0 d stand the 肥〃 d 4 怩 g00 etc. Remember that used has no present form. SO for present habits or routines we must use the simple present tense. 151
F 169 A B C D 17 Present tenses appear ( = seem) , concern, consist, contain, hold ( = contain) , keep ( = continue) , matter, seem, signify, sound ( = seem/appear) : CO / 〃 S us 〃 . んなわ 0 工 co 〃 / れ s 召工カ los es. But appear meaning ・ to come before the public' can be used ⅲ the continuou S. feel, 100k , smell and taste used in the continuous forms feel feel, when followed by an adjective indicating the subject's emotions or physical or mental condition, e. g. 4 〃 g ゆル〃 s , んゆカ ) ム〃 d , ん房 / , レ d , 催 vous ん 0 〃万召厩 , is normally used ⅲ the simple tenses but can also be used in the continuous: 〃 0 面元召召〃 ? ~ / 元召川元〃 g れ feel meaning ・ touch' (usually in order to learn something) can be used in the continuous : The 面け as 切 g カげカ 4 な e. Similarly, feel for meaning 'try to find something by touching' : He g the 々加ル切召面 . But feel is not used in the continuous when it means : の 0 〃 7 4 元 e 加加″ 4 々切 g ? when it means 'think' : / 元″ 4 川〃 g and when it is used as a link verb: The 肥厩げ元 e な co . 100k The continuous is not used with ok used as a link verb, e. g. T カ砒 あ 0 燔 good, or with 100k on ( = consider), 100k up to ( = respect) and ok down on ( = despise) (see chapter 38 ). But look (at), look for/in/into/out and 100k on ( = watch) are deliberate actions and can be used in the continuous tenses : He なん 0 々 g / his glasses. smell The continuous is not used with smell meaning perceive a scent/an odour', e. g. / s 川〃 gas, or with smell used as a link verb, but can be used with smell meaning 'sniff at': ルカ ) 〃″ s 襯〃切 g 召襯〃 Does ″ s 〃〃 s 側戸 taste taste as a link verb is not used in the continuous: This CQ ガ tastes わ襯げ . (has a bitter taste) But taste meamng ・ tO test the flavour Of' can be used in the continuous: S ん肥〃 s s たツ g カ ud 市〃 g ね see ″ as 化の toug ん 157
E F G H lrregular compans ons : bad good 川 4 / 川ん less 川 0 elder 3 Adjectives 加 ()f distance only) 女加 (used more widely; see F, G) 襯 OS ー ()f people only) ol ()f people and things) farther/farthest and further/furthest BOth forms can be used Of distances: 物な知んげ〃 4 れんげ 4 ん切 co 切催 & ル ). ()n the last sentence farthest /furthest are pronouns. See 24 B. ) further can alSO be used, mainly with abstract nouns, tO mean ' additional/extra ' : Fu んげ力がル s 襯 S00 〃厖 4 〃ル . Fu れ / 市 s ss あ〃召 0 d 厖カ 0 切ル ss. SimiIarIy: / 4 んげ召れ召 s / de s / de 襯 4 れホ / 切 / 襯砒あれ / 切翔け etc. furthest can be used similarly, with abstract nouns: T んな as the 女ん召カ房り〃 c 切召レ市 s ss ル T んな as the 女ん召 co 〃化 ss あ〃 he 04 川〃 . (For adverb use, see 32. ) far (used for distance) and near ln the comparative and superlative both can be used quite freely: the 〃 4 加川 04 4 切 召 nearest 月霍 e / But in the positive form they have a limited use. far and near are used chiefly with % ん , 劭 , 肥〃 etc. : the 知 / 厖々 (the bank on the other side) 怩〃 / 厖〃々 (the bank on this side 0f the river) near can also be used with s な and far with 0 ん , so ん , and た With other nouns far is usually replaced by 市 s / 尾川 0 and near by 怩 4 ) / 怩励 0 切 g : 4 川 0 な la 〃 d 怩愈励〃 g 〃 age. For far (adverb) , see 32 ; for near (adverb or preposition) , see 30 C. elder, eldest; older, oldest elder, eldest imply semority rather than age. They are chiefly used for comparisons within a family: 川 d げわげ , 加 / わなレ I ; but elder is not used with than, SO Older is necessary here: 〃な 01 / / 〃川 . (elder would not be possible. ) ln colloquial English eldest, 01dest and youngest are often used 0f only two boys/girls/children etc. : な el わ ' s 砒 s 00 な the 0 な s 〃〃ん 0 川 e. This is particularly common when eldest, oldest are used as pronouns : To 川な / 加 el 鹿並 ()f the two) (See 24 B. ) 37
E F G 1 ArticIes etc. the is used before certmn proper names Of seas, nvers, groups Of islands, chains Of mountains, plural names Of countries, deserts, reglons: the A れ the Thames 召ょ 0 s 召 AIPs the ん催”ホ C 厖 立ん 4 川 and before certain Other names: City 翫 g 召 Ma 〃 the & 川” d the 立” the 劭 the iS alSO used before names consisting Of noun 十 Of 十 noun: Gu ゲ可 M な 0 the Bay 可 B な c 召 C ゆ召可 Go 〃 0 加召 United S A e 4 the is used before names consisting Of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not s な召 etc. ): the ス川われ & 4 ル FO the 丑なん S the is used before the adjectives s 〃召 etc. 十 noun in certain names: 召 E 〃ル End 召 E 〃ル lndies 召 0 ん / S Po ル but is normally omltted : S 側町Ⅳ 0 れん A 川〃 West G 4 the, however, iS used before east/west etC. When these are nouns : the West (geographical) the Ⅳ召 (political) the Middle Ea Compare GO 0 れん (adverb: ⅲ a northerly direction) with He 〃怩 s 切 the 0 ん (noun: an area ⅲ the north). the iS used before Other proper names consisting Of adjective 十 noun or noun 十 Of 十 noun: the ル 4 朝れ Ga the TO 催切れ面” lt is alSO used before names Of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc. : Beatles the Bach C レ召 P カゅん 0 s レ 4 and before names 0f newspapers (The 川 ) and ships (the G B 4 切 ). the with names 0f people has a very limited use. the + plural surname . family': can be used tO mean 'the . 召 Smiths = Mr 4 れ d Mrs S 川渤侮れ d 〃市 ) the + singular name 十 clause/phrase can be used tO distinguish one person 仕 om another Of the same name: We ん 4 加 0 Mr S ″ . なん面 4 t? ~ / 召 Mr the is used before titles contaming 0f (the Du 可新 ) but it is not used before other titles or ranks ( ん 0 0 〃げ , C ゆ C00 々 ) , though if someone is referred t0 by title/rank alone the is used: The c ゆ 0 催 . The 加け . Letters written tO tWO or more unmarried sisters jOintlY may be addressed The Misses + surname: The Misses S 川″ん . 20
23 A B C 24 A B 3 Adjectives the + adjective with a plural meaning blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor, unemployed and certain Other adjectives describing the human character or condition can be preceded by the and used tO represent a class Of persons. These expressions have a plural meaning; they take a plural verb and the pronoun is they: The 加 g 可カ 0 催 , 加 get 催 . the can be used in the same way with national adjectives ending in ch or Sh: the S カ〃 召 Welsh D and can be used similarly with national adjectives ending ⅲ se or ss: the C the Swiss though it is just possible for these t0 have a singular meaning. NOte that the + adjective here refers to a group of people considered in a general sense only. If we wish tO refer tO a particular group, we must add a noun: These s な 4 知 / 市 s 勧 I . The 市 s ル d 川 e 川わげ s 可 0 / 力な催 e let . The F 加ん like eat . The F 加んね 4 s な co 川が〃切 4 わ 0 the 0 広 Some colours can be used in the plural t0 represent people but these take s like nouns: the わ I 燔 , the s. the 十 adjective can occasionally have a singular meamng: c 記ゆげ so の Adjectives 十 one/ones and adjectives used as pronouns MOSt adjectives can be used with the pronouns one/ones, when one/ones represents a previously mentioned noun: Don 7 わ the 加召力が , ・ getthe c 加げ 0 怩 s. 〃 4 厖ホ〃 4 〃 4 〃 soft 0 s. / lo 川 ) 0 襯 e 川 , ・なな 4 new 0 . Similarly with a number + adjective : 〃 4 ん〃怩〃 7 got 4 房が厩の加 0 s 川 4 〃 0 s 〃面 . Adjectives used as pronouns first/second etc. can be used with or without one/ones; i. e. they can be used as adjectives or pronouns: 励 4 切市 d な孵 ~ / 厩 e 万の . the + superlative can be used similarly: To 襯な the ( 川〃わ . The as 0 ル and sometimes the 十 comparative: なん ( 可 these のな the 川 ge But this use Of the comparaåve is considered rather literary, and in informal English a superlative is Often used here instead: ( these 加のな the 川 g 召 st? 40
B C D 43 A 4 Adverbs rather: T んな S04 力な知レん implies that the speaker likes hot soup, while T んな so ″力な川催 hotimplies that it is a little t00 hot for him. rather can be used before 旒の I の s 〃 4 / , 市加 etc. and before comparatives. lt then means 'a little' or ・ slightly' : S e な 4 川 like dogs 切 so 川召 s. The 川催催 4 / ん〃 d 加市 d. rather a is possible with certain nouns: 市 sa カカ房召れな市 sad 霍 4 れ g の 〃給〃れじのカ / り , S ん 4 and someåmes ノ 0 々 e : lt's 川召 / 4 れ sa ( = a little inconvenient) we 〃 7 lt's 川 4 4 川 e ( = a little unfair) 厩 has 0 0 立 s. fairly cannot be used ⅲ these ways. rather can be used before certain ・ favourable' adjectives/adverbs such as 4 川 g , c ル怩 / , good, カ , 〃 but its meamng then changes; it becomes nearly equivalent tO very, and the idea Of disapproval vanishes: S ん召な / e / じル召 / iS nearly the same as She な召 C ル e れ rather used ⅲ this way is obviously much more complimentary than fairly. For example the expression な 4 レ go が would, if anything, discourage Others from gorng tO see it. But な川催 4 good が 4 ツ is definitely a recommendation. OccasionaIIy rather used ⅲ this way conveys the idea Of surpnse: 川催 c ル 4 ル rather can alSO be used before e , I 召 and sometimes before 市 sl の 0 わ元け and some similar verbs: / 川催〃 s 川加 I. 丑召川げ砌切 g ・ rather can be used ⅲ short answers tO questions with the above verbs: DO 〃ん .2 ~ Yes / , 川催 . rather + 〃々召ん可 is Often used tO express a liking which is a surpnse tO Others or tO the speaker himself. But it can also be used tO strengthen the verb: / 催 like TO 川 implies more interest than / 〃 To 襯 . (For would rather, see 297 , 298. ) quite This is a confusing word because it has tWO meamngs. lt means ・ completely' when it is used with a word or phrase which can express the idea 0f completeness 朝〃厩 , 化 4 , 翔 2 切 , e 川カ , 万記 , 女〃 , 4 の , , , れ g etc. ) and when it is used with a very strong adjective/adverb such as 4 川砒 g , レ 40 切 4 り , The わ 0 ″ル as 泥召川カ . Y04 ' 川 . lt's 4 レ 40 切 4 , ・ / れ 7 4 〃 d ″ 4 〃 .
B 261 A 24 Gerund O the rwise to place d after a ve rb will probably be a preposition and will be followed by noun/pronoun or gerund. NOte these expressions: 100k forward tO, take tO, be accustomed tO, be used to: / 4 川 Z00 々切 g 知 / 4 ね川〃 d s / ん々 d / ね″ . / 〃襯ん 0 々切 g 知 / 4 s g . / 〃川加ん 4 Ⅷ乃〃 d / 加なレ d た / 4 川 used s れ市 g 切″ / ね″ . Be careful not to confuse I used to/he used to etc. , which expresses a past habit or routine ( T んり e イわ 4 CO 〃なれ 0 りわ 4 翔 fuel 0 〃 0 ゆ , with I am used to/he is used to etc. , which means 'I am/he is accustomed to/familiar with' : / 4 川ね the co . ()t doesn't worry me. ) He な肥 0 g 厩厩 . ()e doesn't mind it. ) (See 162. ) A good way Of finding out whether a tO is a preposition or a part Of an infimtive is tO see if it is possible tO put a noun/pronoun after it. For example a noun/pronoun could be placed after I am accustomed to: This to therefore is a preposition, and verbs used after to must be gerunds. Verbs followed by the gerund The mo st important of the se are : ad 襯″ * consider* defer 市 s 〃 靃 d 召 sca. カ召 excuse / 〃 OI *See B. imagine) ゆ ( = continue) 川 e 〃〃 * ( = involve) ( = object) mtss 加 s 加。加 * ( = suggest) co 〃ド 襯 e 川厖 / * ( = recollect) resent 覊怩わ召励ル stoP ( = cease) / s d * The gerund is also used after the expressions 〃 7 stand ( = endure) , れ 7 ゆ ( = prevent/avoid) , it's 〃 0 な側 d and after the adjective 0 ん 230
170 A B 171 A B C 17 Present tenses see and hear used ⅲ the continuous forms see can be used in the continuous When it means 'meet by appointment' (usually for business) , 'interview' : The 市 c / な seeing the 4 力がな 4 s な川 0 g. / 4 川 seetng 川 ) s 况な″ 0 / 川 0 〃 0 乢 (See 202. ) AISO when it means 'visit' (usually as a tourist) : TO 川な seeing 〃 / e s 愈厩 s. lt can also be used in the continuous in the following combinations : see about = make arrangements or enqmnes: Ⅲ召 4 seeing 〃わ 0 4 0 加 / 川″知 / 4. (trying tO arrange this) see t0 = arrange , put right, deal with: The が川わげな . 〃召な seeing ね the I 々切 04 / 々 . escort him/her tO the door. see somebody out see somebody home = escort him/her home. see somebody t0 + place escort him/her t0 + place : ANN: ム BiII seeing ん 0 川 e 4 アげ召加 MARY: 0 , ん e ' s seeing 川召川 ) わ . see someone 0 = say goodbye tO a deparång traveller at the starting point Of his journey (usually the station, airport etc. ) : ル召 ' I 霍切 g 川川乢 BiII な seeing 0 ガ 4 加ゆ 0 れ . hear can be used in the continuous when it means ・ listen formally tO' (complaints/evidence etc. ) : The C04 なんれ g 健 / 〃化な 4 ア召川 00 ル hear meaning recelve news or letters' can alSO be used in the continuous form but only in the present perfect and future: / ' 怩わ〃ん切 g 4 〃 4 わ 0 4 ac 朝厩 . 4 ' 〃ん g 〃わ 0 召怩 s 召川召〃 e 川〃〃 g. think, assume and expect used in the continuous forms think can be used in the continuous When no opimon iS glven or asked for: け厩 4 尾々 g 〃わ 0 ? ~ / ' 川切々切 g 4 わ 0 召が召覊肥 . But Ⅲん厩面切々可″ ? (opinion asked for) ~ / 面〃 7 切々川ん可 ″ . (opinion given) TO 川なん切 g 召川川〃〃 g. 厩面切々可 ? ~ assume can be used in the continuous When it means accept as a starting point' : l'm su 川 g 厩カ〃〃川ね面 4 lOt 可 s 尾ん assume power/control Of a country or orgamzation can alSO be used in the continuous: T ん召召肥 go e 〃川 e 〃ー assu 川 / 〃 g カ 0 e 〃ー 0 〃 ce. expect can be used ⅲ the continuous When it means : She's 加け切 ga 厖切 M . l'm カ e け切 g 4 ″げ . 158
C 1 2 108 10 lntroduction to verbs They always form their negative and inte rrogative according to the auxiliary patte rn : 04g 〃房 . 2 04g を . 2 They have no proper past tenses; four past forms exist, could, might, should, would, but they have only a restricted use. ModaI verbs have no infinitive s or participles and there fore cannot be used ⅲ the conånuous tenses. AII modal verbs except ought are followed by the bare infinitive: 物 4 側カ but 0 ねカ . A modal verb always reqmres an lnfinitive, though sometimes this is understood but not mentioned: Ca 〃 4 催 s d ? ~ Yes, / 伽 d げ s 〃の . need, dare and used (the semi-modals) When used as auxiliaries, need and dare can conform to the modal pattern. They then take the bare infinitive: He d 房〃″ . But they can also use the do/did forms, and then take the んⅡ infinitive with to : He 面 e 7 加 / 翔が . T んり市 7 4 ″ . (See 149. ) need and dare can also be used as ordinary verbs, and are then infle cted and have the usual participle s : He e ホ加ゆ . 面 d me カ . used, someåmes referred tO as used tO, is used only ⅲ the past. For its negative and interrogative it usually follows the auxiliary pattern : / ん“ 7 ね go. But though technically used has no infinitive, the forms didn't use to and did he/she etc. use to? are qulte often heard. Use Of auxiliaries in short answers , agreements etC. Auxiliarie s are extremely important ⅲ conversation because ⅲ short answers, agreements, disagreements with remarks, additions to remarks etc. we use auxiliaries instead Of repeating the original verb. Auxiliaries ⅲ short answers Questions reqtllring the answer yes or no, i. e. quesåons such as の 0 s 0 ? or Ca 〃 4 房 cyc ル .2 , should be answered by yes or no and the auxiliary 0 ⅲ y. The original subject, if a noun, is replaced by a pronoun. Pronoun subjects may change as shown.• 111