5 all, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any, no, none all, each, every, everyone, everybody, everything (for all and each, see also 48 ) all compared tO every Technically, all means a number of people or things considered as a group while every means a number Of people or things considered individually. But ⅲ practice every and its compounds are often used when we are thinking Of a group. each (adjective and pronoun) and every (adjective) each means a number Of persons or things considered individually. every can have this meamng but with every there is less emphasis on the individual. E 川 4 〃カ〃 4 20 〃 means 'AII the men had weapons' , and implies that the speaker counted the men and the weapons and found that he had the same number 0f each. E ん川 4 ん ad 4 e ゆ 0 implies that the speaker went tO each man ⅲ turn and checked that he had a weapon. each is a pronoun and adjective: E 〃 ( 川なの々れ 0 s ん厩面 . every is an adjective only: E 怩川 4 〃々 0 s . each can be used Of tWO or more persons or things, and iS normally used Of small numbers. every is not normally used 0f very small numbers. BOth take a singular verb. The possessive adjective is his/her/its. (For the reciprocal pronoun each other, see 53 C, 70 B. ) everyone/everybody and everything (pronouns) everyone/everybody + singular verb is normally preferred tO all (the) people + plural verb, i. e. we say E 0 e な / の instead 0f A 〃 the 加 0 カル 4 4 の . There is no difference between everyone and everybody. everything is similarly preferred t0 all (the) things, i. e. we say E 怩切 g ん as 厖肥 d instead 0f A 〃召 things カ 4 厖〃 . The expressions all (the) people, all (the) things are possible when followed by a phrase or clause : A 〃召加 0 カル切 the 川 0 川 cl 〃カ加 d. / g 4 〃切 gs 々れ Otherwise they are rarely used. (For pronouns and possessive adjectives with everyone/everybody, see 51 C, 69. ) 64 C B A 46

B 44 45 4 Adverbs When used with other adjectives/adverbs, quite has a slightly weakening effect, SO that quite good is normally less complimentary than good. quite used in this way has approximately the same meamng as fairly but its strength can vary very much according tO the way it is stressed: 皙 00d (weak 44 泥 , strong g00 の is very little less than 、 good '. 4 ″いÅ00d (equal stress) means 'moderately good'. 4 good (strong , weak g00 の is much less than ・ good ' The less quite is stressed the stronger the following adjective/adverb becomes. The more quite is stressed the weaker its adjective/ adverb becomes. N0te the position 0f a/an: ⅵあ g 4 ⅵ 0 s 〃召 . quite can also modify 召可 , 〃 , ag 尾 and understand 劭召花 4S0 ル : / % 7 〃 ) 観仂 0 lbm's CO 劭れ ~ / ク″″ d 催 s d. hardly, scarcely, barely hardly, scarcely and barely are almost negative in meamng. hardly is chiefly used with any, ever, at all or the verb can: He カ as ん 4 4 川 0 れ . (very little money) / ん 4 側 go 0 . (I very seldom go out. ) 〃げ case な so 加 4 she 〃ん〃 lift ″ . But it can also be used with Other verbs: / ん 4 々れ 0 川 . (I know him only very slightly. ) Be careful not to confuse the adverbs hard and hardly: 〃召ん記ん 4 厩″ . ()e stared at it. ) He ん 4 ん 0 々″ . ()e gave it only a brief glance. ) scarcely can mean 'almost not' and could replace hardly as used above: sca 4 ) ム ca 尾召召 e / etC. But scarcely is chiefly used tO mean 'not quite ' : T e s / 加り加 0 カル e . (probably fewer) (For hardly/scarcely with inversion, see 45 and 342 E. ) barely means ・ not more than/only just' : T 加召わな一加 0 が召催召 . (only just twenty) / れわ〃 see ″ . (l can only just see it. ) lnversion of the verb lnversion Of the verb after certain adverbs Certain adverbs and adverb phrases, mostly with a restrictive or negative sense , can for emphasis be placed first in a sentence clause and are then followed by the inverted (). e. interrogative) form 0f the 62

F G H I 22 A B C 3 Adjectives Companson Of actions with gerunds or infinitives: 切 g 4 horse な房 as riding 4 川 0 / c ル . な c げ / 川 0 / go ″ん so eo 〃〃〃 go 4Z0 〃 . (See 341. ) Compansons with like (preposition) and alike: TO 襯な like 召襯 . Bill 〃イ To 川〃怩〃 . He ゆ s the 川 I 厩切 g 〃 0 ル lt's 〃 g 切 the レ . Compansons with like and as (bOth adverb and adjective expressions are shown here) ln theory like (preposition) is used only with noun, pronoun or gerund: He swims 〃万 . 1 側々 like 4 g ん os た Be 〃可川 : go g ・ The 切面 s e 4 〃厖〃 . 〃厖切 g カ〃 so ル and as (conjunction) is used when there is a finite verb: の 0 催面 : go g ・ Why 面 7 c ルね 0 as 召面 .2 But in colloquial English like is often used here instead of as : C. ルね 0 like we 面 . like 十 noun and as 十 noun: 〃加 like 4 s . (very hard indeed) He 0 as 4 sla 膨 . ()e was a slave. ) She ん川わ〃 4 as 4 e ゆ 0 ル (She struck him with it. ) than/as 十 pronoun 十 auxiliary When the same verb is required before and after than/as we can use an auxiliary for the second verb. This auxiliary is not contracted. / less 4 〃加 does. (less than he earns) The same tense need not be used ⅲ bOth clauses: He 々加 0 〃 / 市砒んな age. When the second clause consists only of than/as + l/we/you + verb, and there is no change 0f tense, it is usually possible tO omit the verb: / 切れ as 0 侮 . He ん as 川 0 〃 e 4 〃肥召の . ln formal English we keep l/we, as the pronoun is still considered t0 be the subject 0f the verb even though the verb has been omitted. ln informal English, however, me/us is more usual: He ん as 襯 0 〃 4 川 e. T んり us. When than/as is followed by he/she/it + verb, we normally keep the verb: Yo 4 s レ 0 れ g 催 4 〃 he な . But we can drop the verb and use he/she/they ⅲ very formal English or him/her/them in very colloquial English. These rules apply alSO tO compansons made with adverbs: / s 肥厖 / does/better 4 れん . 加ん 4 催 4 ” we 面川 4 4 れ . Y04 が as as / ん s 川 e. 39

6 54 55 56 A lnterrogatives : wh-? words and how? lnterrogative adjectives and pronouns For persons: subject object possesslve For things : subject/object (pronoun) ん 0 川 , ん 0 (pronoun) 肥ん ose (pronoun and adjective) ん厩 (pronoun and adj ective) For persons or things when the choice is restricted: subject/object んなん (pronoun and adjective) The same form is used for singular and plural. what can so be used for persons (see 58 D). Affirmative verb after WhO, Whose etC. used as subjects whO, whose, which, what when used as subjects are normally followe d by an affirmative , not an interrogative , ve rb : ー 0 カ s the わ〃な .2 (affirmative verb) ル ose / なんん s 召 0 ル 2 (affirmative verb) 厩んゆ加 d. グル肥 e 川 g. 2 (affirmative verb; possible answers: We 川なイ the 〃切 ad 4 れ 4 e . ) But with whO, whose etc. 十 be 十 noun or personal/distributive pronoun, an interrogaåve verb iS used: 0 4 ? 0 なな .2 な 0 な With who, whose etc. used as objects of a verb or preposition an interrogative verb iS, Of course , necessary. Examples of the use 0f who, whom, whose, which and what WhO, , hO ーれ , Whose whO as subject: 0 ゆ s the ん (affirmative verb) 0 0 々川 gu ル 2 (affirmative verb) 0 4 召わ s ? (interrogative verb) whO, whom as objects Of a verb: NormaI English: 0 did s .2 Very formal English: ル 0 川 did 召 co 川川襯〃カ加 t? whose as subject: 0 “ / わ川肥れ ? (affirmative verb) ル os 他側燔 ) 4 (inte rrogative verb) whose as object Of a verb: ー 0 4 川わ〃 4 did 4 わ催川肥 ? 71

C D E 34 A B 4 Adve rbs ln the interrogative much is chiefly used with how. ln questions without how, much is possible but a 10t is more usual: 丑 0 肥川 4 ん ridden? 丑 ridden 4 lo レ襯 ? ln the affirmative as/so/too + much is possible. ()therwise a lot/ a good deal/a great deal is preferable: He 04 な so 川ん . But He s 4 lo g . very much meaning greatly can be used more widely ⅲ the affirmative. We can use it with わ川のカ川なの 4 々 and with a number Of verbs concerned with feelings: ad レの 4 川の 4 カカ川 , 市 sl 旒の distress, , / 川カ ss , I 旒の 0 わ元け , s ん oc 々 , su ゆれ etc. : T ん々川 . T カり ad 川レ召 d 川川 4 . She 0 り % な怩り川 the 〃 0 な e 川 4 . much ( = greatly) , with or without very, can be used with the participles ad 川レ , 4 川 us 召 , 市 sl 旒 , 市 s レ s 言川カ s d , I , 0 , s レ々 , か : He as ( 丿川ん ad 川レ . She ( り ) uc ん川カ ss e レ g00 川 4 〃 . much meamng a 10t can modify comparative or superlative adjectives and adverbs: ん the 厖川川 0 な々 much t00 can be used with positive forms: He s. 加川ん 0 most placed before an adjective or adverb can mean very. lt is mainly used here with adjectives/adverbs of two or more syllables: 丑召 0 4 カ olog な . S ん召わ励 4 怩 d 川 0 ge 川 us . (See 21 C. ) Constructions with compansons (see also 341 ) When the same verb is required ⅲ both clauses we normally use an auxiliary for the second verb (see 22 ). With the po sitive form we u s e as . . as with an affirmative ve rb , and as/SO . . as with a negative verb: 〃召 0 as s ん肥加面 d. 〃召面 es が加 as 添 0 loud 面 . 市 d が 4 as ム 0 long / 加 . With the comparative form we use than: He な川 0 4 c 々〃〃 / 面 / 4 〃川召 . 丑召が厖″ 4 ん ad 側げが . the 十 comparative . . the 十 comparaåve is also possible: T ん召ル / 4 s ル召 S00 れ催 ' 〃厖わ々 .

D E F 37 A 4 Adverbs Someone phoning a friend may introduce himself/herself by name 十 here.• ANN ()n phone): , To 川 ? Ann 加 or T んなな A れ劜 She must not say A れ〃なん召 or 丑催な A 劜 The adverbs away ( = 0 , down, in, 0 仕 , out, over, round, up etc. can be followed by a verb of motion 十 a noun subject: A 肥 ) e れ一 the 川催 s. の 0 れ元〃 4 面 2 4 s. 0 s. カ川れ g the 側 . 04 れな〃 d 川〃 d ア e the が 4 . But if the subject is a pronoun it is placed before the verb: A りた 04 れ d 4 川〃 d ″ル乢 There is more drama ・ⅲ this order than in subject 十 verb 十 adverb but no difference ln meamng. ln written English adverbials introduced by prepositions ( イ 0 〃 , 0 川 , 切 , 0 川 0 0 4 〃 d , ゆ etc. ) can be followed by verbs indicating position ( c 4 , ん g , , sit, stand etc. ), by verbs of motion, by 厖わ 0 , 市の〃 and sometimes other verbs: F 川川 the 川ア s ん g れ gs 0 0 . ル召面催 s ね 0 4 川〃れ 4 gu ル 0 4 加尾ん厖ん sat 況 " 0 た 0 the 4 〃川 e 4 s ん 0 e / s 〃 . The first three of these examples could also be expressed by a participle and the verb 厖 : 〃 4 g 切 g 0 川 the 川ア催 s e strings 可 0 0 . Standing 切召面 0 ) as 4 川〃〃″ん 4 gu ル Sitting 0 4 加尾ん厖 s / 川 4 わ I 加〃房 . But a participle could not be used with the last example unless the shower Of stones lasted for some time. Adverbs of time afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon, then, tOday, tomorrow etc. and adverb phrases Of time: at once, since then, till ( 6.00 etc. ) These are usually placed at the very begnmng or at the very end of the clause, i. e. ⅲ front posiåon or end position. End position is usual with imperatives and phrases with till: E 怩厩 4 he 川レ″ came 〃 . T 加〃 we ん 0 川レⅣ e 一ん 0 川 e 召ル Ⅳねツ . 尸〃″〃〃ね川 0 " 0 乢 (For lately, recently, see also 185. ) With compound tenses, eventually, lately, now, recently, since and soon can come after the auxiliary: We ' 〃 so 厖 e 尾 55

27 281 A 1 2 3 B C Commands , requests , invitations , advice, suggestions 245 T ん 4 〃房れ go 4 耘 . not to: used ⅲ modern English. lnstead, we would use must not or is/are The negative imperative, let ん川ん川 + negative infinitive , is not T ん 4 ね go / 4 go れ . more usual tO say: This is not a very common construction ⅲ modern English. lt would be 加川 go 〃切 . let him/her/it/them + bare infinitive (see also 322 ) : Form The third pers on impe rative express a suggestion (see 289 ). way, or express a decision which they are expected tO accept, or By let us (let's) the speaker can urge his hearers tO act in a certain Do が日 's 厖川川川 04 . But it is possible in colloquial English t0 put don't before let's: ん us 〃厖 alarmed 川川 0 . For the ne gative we normally put not before the infinitive : ん stand ge げ切な召川 e 加共 let us (let's) + bare infinitive: Form The first person imperative This dO could be persuasive, but could alSO express irritation. の 0 ん / . の 0 厖た d0 can be placed before the affirmative imperative : or wishes tO make a distinction, as ln: The pronoun you is rarely used unless the speaker wishes tO be rude, These nouns can be placed before the verb, but this is much less usual. Eat / 市催 , わ s. Be ル TO 川 . expressed by a noun placed at the end Of the phrase: The person addressed is very Often not mentioned, but can be For the negative we put do not (don't) before the verb: 〃 4 ! Ⅲ 4 卍 S ねが This has the s ame form as the bare infinitive : The second person imperaåve Commands expressed by the imperative

C 167 A B 1 2 17 Present tenses For a deflnite arrangement in the near future (the most usual way of expressing one lmmediate plans) : / 切川〃〃 g 催ね . He な々 g 川召召レ e. Are 面切 g 4 切 g ね川 0 〃 0 4 ア召川 00 ル P ~ Yes, / ' 川が切 g れれな″ん A 〃ル Note that the time of the action must always be mentioned, as otherwise there might be confusion between present and future meanings. come and go, however, can be used in this way without a time expression. (See 202 B. ) Other possible uses of the present continuous With a point in time to indicate an action which beglns before this point and probably continues after it: A / の〃厖切 g the 厖 . (I start bathing him before six. ) Similarly with a verb in the simple present: They 〃ア〃 g 催召加〃 0 怩 g 切知ホ . The present continuous IS rarely used in this way except in descnptions Of daily routine and in dramatic narrative , but the past continuous is Often combined with a point in time or a verb in the simple past. (See 179 C, E. ) With always: 〃な〃 s losing んなん s. This form is used, chiefly in the affirmative : For a frequently repeated action, usually when the frequency annoys the speaker or seems unreasonable tO him: TO 川な 4 ) s gomg 4 の ' 知肥〃ホ (present continuous) would imply that he goes away very Often, probably tOO often in the speaker's opinion. But it does not necessarily mean that he goes away every weekend. lt is not a literal statement. Compare with always 十 simple present: TO 川 4 / 肥の , s goes 〃肥々 e ホ TO 川 go 4 の , 召怩々 . (a literal statement) l/we + always 十 continuous tense is alSO possible here. The repeated action is then often accidental: For an action WhiCh appears t() be continuous: This sort Of action quite often annoys the speaker but doesn't necessarily d0 so: 〃 's 肥 s 〃市〃 g could imply that he spends t00 much time reading, but could alSO be said in a tone Of approval. The first person could be used here t00. The action then, like the other actions here in 2 , is usually deliberate. 155

39 List 0f irregular verbs lrregular verbs The verbs ⅲ roman type are verbs which are not very common ln modern English but may be found ⅲ literature. When a verb has two possible forms and one is less usual than the other, the less usual one will be printed ⅲ roman. Compounds Of irregular verbs form their past tenses and past participle s in the same way as the original verb : 364 come 0 e / じ 0 川 e set 0 e / ca 川召 set come 0 / CO e set Pre sent and infinitive SimpIe past abide anse わ ea / become befall beget 厖 g behold 厖れ d beseech bid ( = co 川川 4 の わ ( = 。加わ わ d abode arose わ 0 わ eca befell begot 厖 ga ” beheld be sought 厖 d, 乃可 bade bid わ 04 れイ Past participle abode 〃れ S 召れ awoken/awaked わ乃 0 川 * become befallen begotten 厖 gu beheld 厖 d 乃 * besought bidden bid わ 04 れ d *These past participles are not optional but carry different meamngs and should be checked by the student ⅲ a reliable dictionary. 353

30 302 A B C D The passive V01Ce Form The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb tO be intO the same tense as the active verb and adding the past participle Of the active verb. The subject Of the active verb becomes the ・ agent' Of the passive verb. The agent is very Often not mentioned. When it is mentioned it is preceded by by and placed at the end Of the clause: This tree as が 4 g 川 d. 既 Examples Of present, past and perfect passive tenses: Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive We ゆ the わな催 . The わ″催なが . T わ川 the 切面乢 The 面肥 as わ川ん . People ん 4 怩 s 0 ん切 s レな . Ⅳ 0 んカ 4 厖 e 〃 s 〃切 the s な . The passive Of C()ntlnUOUS tenses requires the present continuous forms of to be, which are not otherwise much used: Active T んり / ゆ 4 レ切 g 召肚滬@•召. Passive The bridge な切 g 加レ . Active T ん催 e / 切 g the 切ル / が催 0 ガ万 e . Passive The 切ル d がげ as 厖切 g / 0 ガ e 加 . Other continuous tenses are exceedingly rarely used in the passive, SO that sentences such as: T んん〃膨 ad 厖 / ゆ房 g the 川 ad and り〃加 04 厖 / ゆ 4 ⅵれ g ル川 4 are not normally put intO the passive. Auxiliary 十 lnfinitive combinations are made passive by using a passive infinitive : Active Passive Active Passive 新 4 川ん 04 曜召面 s. These 面 0 川 us ん厖 . (perfect infinitive active) He 0 d ん ug (perfect infinitive passive) 263