H I N D U I S M Benares, in its anglicized 応 rr れ . Settlement grew naturally to come, this group would be called "untouchable;" the pre- at this site, JLISt upstream 伝 01 れ the confluence Ofthe Varuna ferred term today is Dalit (oppressed). and the Ganges. A levee formed by flood deposi ts along the BOYS born intO the three higher classes were expected to 応Ⅱ ow an exemplary life path through four stages 0 日 i , river S outside curve creates a natural amphitheater. The land- or as るク 4 工 . ln the student stage, they learned the anclent forr れ invltes worship, SO pleasing is it tO stand on the west- ern bank Ofthe Ganges and watch the sun rlse over the 、 vater, physical discipline ofyoga—from the Sanskrit "to yoke" SO refreshing is it tO wade intO the slow-movmg water, tO a practice by which one's physical being might be joined drink and bathe. More than 70 ghats, or sets of steps, with the larger cosmic body. Boys dedicated themselves to gtllde the fai [ h 応 1 down i nt0 the river. Many of these broad study, reciting not only the ancient Vedas but also the stone stairways, with landings big growing body 0f philosophical enough to hold shrines and shop- commentary on those holy books. keepers' carts, date back tO the At the end of this firststage, a boy 18th century. Daily ablutions , both underwent a coming-of-age cere- satisfying and necessary, became mony, symbolized by a thread given codified religious ritual centuries to him to drape over his le 丘 shoul- der forever after. This thread- ago. Throngs still salute the dawn daily by bathing in the Ganges to lnvestlture marked a second, purify b(kly and soul and to shed all spiritual birth. The boy had become a 。 twice-born ' and was entitled [ 0 sin. They hope [ 0 die in Varanasi in old age and have their ashes strewn study the Vedas. in the river tO find release from the Now a young man embarked cycle of rebirth. on his second phase 0 日 i , that of the householder. ln ancient prac- Accordi ng tO the anclent caste divisions, most people belonged tice, a wife was selected for him by his family from among the to the third varna, the Vaishyas. unmarried women in their varna. These 、 vere the farmers, merchants, and craftsmen. Like the thighs of HindLl marrlage ceremomes by many today recall ancient ritual. Purusha, they were the motlve and muscle 0 「 society. Slaves and serfs belonged [ 0 the fourth Bride and bridegroom are anointed for the event With san- dalwood paste and the fragrant yellow oil of turmeric, varna, the Sudra, along with peoples living in conquered reputed tO aid in fertility. Under a flower-strewn canopy, territories. Without them, SOCiety could not stand or 1 ove , where a nuptial fire burns, the priest ties a knot, jOining the and yet like feet, they were unclean and lowly. Two social bride and groom together by their garments. TO invoke the groups complicate this picture Of the universe: 、々 ) men , WhO blessing of the gods, he places a gift 0 信〃 ag 比とーー an aro- assumed the class status oftheir fathers and husbands, and matic paste made 0f crushed sandalwood, herbs, sugar, those so 10W that they Ⅱ beneath the Sudra. ln centuries opp の / 旺 : B ″翔加ル〃 g ェ所と功功いりん女り第比ル〃 g ルの勗 4 〃ノ化ん 4 〃り脚の 4 精〃れん〃な 4 紘加 / んム ス砌 v ハ第ん / ん〃 g ゐ / ん / 〃 g イんル , 〃切狃イ読〃 4 〃ノげ紐〃。〃 . 比 0 旧 NG 例 G ハ : ハ第なは加 0 〃ん / 〃 g / んな第切ノ / な加 4 みイ ac / / なレたハ〃ノ〃な . 91

B U D D H I S M enshrined by walls that were vividly painted with orna- mental and symbolic imagery. The smaller one was probably completed in the early third century A. D. while the larger one dates from about 20() years later. Eyewitness accounts suggest that these figures were painted With gold and decorated dazzlingly. Tales 0fBamiyan carried home by Chinese travelers of the fifth and seventh centuries proba- bly inspired the colossal Buddhas built in China, Korea, and J 叩 an. Bamiyan s remarkable figures st00d, weathering over time, until 2001 when Afghanistan's Taliban leader- ship ordered their destruction, citing them as false idols. Missiles and explosives emptied the rock shrines and dam- aged the supporting rock cliffs. An international effort is now under way [ 0 rebuild the Buddhas. The Bamiyan figures were CentraI Asia's most famous Buddhist shrines but not the only ones. Remains of stupas and monasteries have been discovered throughout west Turkistan, and artifacts in museums around the world tes- tify to the Buddhist history of the area. ln the wake of the destruction at Bamiyan, another Central ASian colossus came [ 0 the attention of the world. ln 2001 archaeologists at a new museum in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, announced that they would soon display a 45 一応 ot ー long Buddha that had once reclined in the Ajina-tepe monastery in Kayfir-kala, about 185 miles north 0fBamiyan. Soviet archaeologists dis- covered the fifth-century figure in 1966. They had been sending smaller artifacts and paintings 伝 om the Ajina-tepe site tO MOSCO 、 V, but they broke this larger piece down intO a hundred pieces and sequestered them, driven by politics tO hide and protect the artifact. 、、行 [ h TaJikistan S new sta- tus as a natl()n and with international support for itS efforts, Tajik curators are busy restoring the figure. T H E A Y T O C H I N A S O M E 0 F the liveliest accounts of Buddhism in Central Asia come from China, in the logs 砿 first-millennium pil- grims traveling west tO the source Of their new religion. Word ofBuddhism reached China during the first century A. D. SchoIars quickly went to work translating the core scriptures, and by 5 5() A. D. more than one thousand texts had been rendered into Chinese. ln 599 A. D. , at age 65 , the traveler Fa Hsien set out on a pilgrimage 伝 om the city of Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the ancient Han capital in north-central China at the con- fluence of the Wei and Feng Rivers. The city had fallen to rtlln early in the first century, but it was experlencing a rebirth thanks to its growing Buddhist community. From Chang'an, Fa Hsien walked [ 0 Dunhuang, an oasis and mil- itary outpost in the far west of China where the Silk Road split intO northern and southern routes. The Great 、み a Ⅱ reaches itS westernmost POint here, Where it IS made not Of stone but 0f coarse clay and gravel layered with tamarisk twigs and reeds. Only the arid conditions ofthis region have allowed it [ 0 last so long. Fa Hsien likely stayed at Dunhuang for a while, honored to reside with the monks at the Mogao Caves, 15 miles south in the G0bi Desert. These monks upheld the legacy ofthe legendary Bodhisattva of Dunhuang—a man known by two names , Dharmaksema and Zhu Fahu, because of his pivotal work translating lndian scripture intO Chinese. ln 1900 , thatlegacy grew in reputation お a custodian at the Moga() site found hiS は y ln [ 0 a new cave. lnside 、 vere thousands 0fBuddhist manuscripts and paintings that had been hidden for a thousand years. A few printed books formed part of this remarkable collection, including the Diamond Sutra, the oldest book bearing its own printed date: "the 13th ofthe 4th moon ofthe 9th year ofXiantong, or May 11 , 868. Many ofthe objects in this so-called Cave of the Thousand Buddhas were sold or removed to other countries. NOW Chi na's Dunhuang Academy oversees the conservation, research, and display Of this cave well the other 570 caves, 54,0()0 square yards ofmurals, and 5 ,000 pai nted statues found nearby. From Dunhuang, Fa Hsien crossed the Taklimakan Desert with a camel train. "ln this desert there are a great many evil spirits and hOt winds," he wrote. NO guidance iS [ 0 be obtained save frOI the rotting bones ()f dead men, り 7

philosophy 伝 om other areas and cultures were collected and inspration fror the ancient GreekS and the Buddhists, the translated. Muslim scholars then built upon the wisdom of Persians and the Chinese. the past. Studyi ng ancient mathematical works 伝 om Greek Great advances ln SC1ence and mathematics [ 00k place during the Abassid caliphate. ln ninth-century Baghdad, and Sanskrit, scholars in Baghdad advanced mathematics, Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi pub- developing the numeral system used around the world today. Plato and Arist0tle's philosophy, Galen and lished his treatlse on compulsion and comparison," which introduced a/-jabr—algebra—to the world. The angli- Hippocrates' medicine, Euclid's geometry, and Pt01emy's cized forr - Of hiS name, al-Khwarizmi, gives us the word astronomy—all were incorporated intO the bOdy Of learn- ing by the scholars 0f Bayt al-Hikmah. 'algorithm. " He also published tables for the movements A prominent scholar 0f this period, lbn Sina, known of the sun, n100n , and five planets. A younger Muslim astronomer in Baghdad , Thabit ibn i n the West as Avicenna, lived and worked in tenth-century Qurra, studied not only al-Khwarizmi but alSO recent Baghdad. His medical text remained the standard in the MiddIe Eas [ and Europe for centuries. At one poi nt the ci ty Arabic translations of Pt01emy and Euclid. He devised an elegant analysis 0f the rotatlon 0f heavenly bodies, the registered 8()() pharmacists. Scientists here compiled a world's first mathematical description Of motion. world atlas , envisioned a round globe, and measured the solar Muslims living hundreds or thousands ofmiles from year and a degree 0f terrestriallatitude. ln the period of European history designated the Dark Ages, Baghdad was Arabia needed tO orlent themselves in prayer toward Mecca. a dynamlc center Of culture. Thinkers and artists drew Building on these many scientific advances, lslamic 364

C H R I S T I A N I T Y including Palestine, Egypt, and Mesopotamia had been brought under Muslim rule. By 7 う () , lslamic rulers con- trolled the north coast of Africa and the southern half of Spain. Through these centuries, Jewish and Christian prac- tices were tolerated in Palestine. The eighth-century caliph AI-Walid called Syria, including PaIestine, "the country of the Christians. " Their churches were beautiful, their adorn- ments ・ a temptation," SO he intended [ 0 build a mosque ln Damascus "which would attract [Muslims] away from these churches. " The same impulse i nspi red Cal iph Abd al- Malik to build the magnificent Dome of the Rock on the Si te ofJerusalem's JewiSh Temple , near the closest Christian shrine, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Conditions in Muslim-controIIed PaIestine were such that ⅲ 78 う Christians could build a new church at Um er-Rasas in today's Jordan. Excavating this church in the 198()s, archae- ologists discovered 日 oor mosaics that m 叩 ped the H01y Land and 24 towns including Jerusalem, labeled the Holy City. On the other hand, fights erupted when 7 ,()()() Muslim soldiers stepped on [ 0 Spanish soil in the spring of 711 and advanced northward. Thus began seven centuries Of effort on the part of European Christians t0 regain Spain. The Muslims or Moors, as they were known in Spain—、 vere willing [ 0 coeXISt with the Christians, as in Palestine, but they did not tolerate missionary efforts. ln 8 う 9 a priest ln Cordoba was executed for trying tO convert Muslims tO Christianity. Far more converslons occurred in the ()ther direction: By the 12th century, Christians were in the mlnority in Andalusia, the southern realm Of Spain. The so-called Crusades started on ltalian soil. ln 915 , Pope J0hn X sent soldiers out into the Roman Campagna— the plains outside Rome—t0 fend 0ffMuslim invaders. ln 1015 , ships sailed from Genoa [ 0 Sardinia to rout out Muslim pirates. Pope Nicholas Ⅱ made land deals with noblemen to defend Sicily from other Muslim onslaughts. Doctrinal issues had long soured relations between Rome and Constantinople, but a common enemy, whether Turkish MusIims in the East or Moors in Spain, brought the two powers closer. Pope Urban Ⅱ journeyed from ltaly [ 0 convene a council at Clermont in France. Although he faced issues within the church, and between the church and European rulers , hiS 1 れ ore important concern was the recent seizure of the city 0fJerusalem by the Seljuks—Turkmen, who spoke Persian and ruled 伝 om Esfahan, south oftoday's Tehran. Speaking in 109 う to an audience of European noblemen and knights i n their service , Pope Urban declared the First Crusade. According tO one account, he exhorted hiS audience tO take up arms 'for your brethren WhO live .. I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's in the east. heralds [ 0 ... persuade all people ofwhatever rank, 応 ot - S01- diers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly [ 0 those Christians and tO destroy that Vile race fr()l れ the lands of our friends. For more than a hundred years European Christians engaged in armed pilgrimage, traveling by land and sea t0 Constantinople and Palestine, those "lands of our friends' that they considered rightfully Christian. D ん〃〃”″ / was the crusaders' cry—God wills it! The First Crusade climaxed in 1099 with the capture of Jerusalem, a gory scene of devastation , with Christians slaughteri ng Jews and Muslims mercilessly. Crusader states ruled by European nobility were established in the MiddIe East, with some lands returned [ 0 Byzantine rule. The return Of the TurkS intO Edessa, one 0f the new states , prompted the Second Crusade , relatively LlnSLICCeSSfLll incursions around Turkey and intO Syria between 1146 and 1148. During the Third Crusade, waged 伝 om 1188 to 1192 , two historic leaders, Saladin and Richard I, met in battle agam and again along the Palestinian coastline. Saladin— the anglicized version 0f his name, Salah ad-din Yusuf ibn Ayyub—belonged to a powerful family of northern Syria. He established an alliance with the Byzant1ne emperor. Richard, the son ofKing Henry Ⅱ ofEngland, traveled with King Philip Ⅱ 0f France by sea via Crete [ 0 Palestine. The oppo 旺 : F りの確なル ag と川″なん 4 ノ / ん C んみ 4 / イ立〃 / ル go C り″たル〃確功ルげ〃 Sp 房〃 . 301

variety 0fJewish li . There were Jews from Africa, lndia, and Yemen who looked totally different from the European Jews I knew, both in dress and skin tone. Among the Eastern European Hasidim there 、 vere var10LIS sects, each one wearing a specific style 0f clothing and headgear that identified their loyalties. I became aware ofmany different rabbis Wh() were known as specialists in esoteric branches ofJewish spirituality and mysticism. Many of the traditional oriental Jews, the Sephardim, dressed according to the Arab communities they had come from. There were modern Western Jews WhO wore head coverings ofvarious sorts and COlors, and there were secular Jews wh0 100ked like any other Mediterranean person. I felt I had stepped out 0f a monochromatic Judaism intO a kaleidoscope Of COlors. I wondered what it was that united all these different varieties ofJews. lt certainly wasn't the way they thought of their culture or philosophy. They shared a common sense of having been persecuted, or having been made t0 feel second-class C1t1zens, and desired tO live in a state Of their own. What sort ofJudaism 、 vas it that united the religious? Judaism is not really a theological system. The first 0f the Ten Commandments isn t even phrased "You Must Believe" but simply states "I am the Lord your G0d. " There iS no formal definition Of the divine nature. ln response tO external forces, Judaism developed 1 ore structured ideas about life after death, messlamsm, and resurrection. only in response t0 Christian credos did great rabbis like Maimonides resort t0 giving Jewish theology a formality. Otherwise it was expressed through teachings that sought [ 0 expand on ideas in an informal way, called 行み 4 訪 . The genius ofJudaism lay in its 。 constitution" known in general the Torah but more specifically as the Halakah, another word for "law" that literally means "the way to go. lt is a system for every aspect Of a person's at h01 れ e , at work, in society atlarge, as well as in the synagogue. Every daily task is given significance and is modified so t0 make one think before one acts. Later mystics added a whole dimenslon Of meditation and preparation that would give greater importance tO each act and make it a means Of ele- vatl()n and spiritual growth. ldeas are lmportant. The nature Of GOd , reward and punishment, revelation, eternal life, and messlamsm are part ofJuda1sm even though they are not rigidly defined. Various traditions within Judaism understand them very differently. But these ideas supplement and are built on the principle ofliving the good 1 飛 and behaving according to the Torah. Love and spirit matter in Judaism above all else. The Jewish emphasis on la , iS not a dry routine. lt Offers constant reminders Of the noble ideas we asplre tO. Thinking before one eats precisely because there are restrictions, setting aside one day a week for reflection and meditation, preparing for prayer, applying limitatlons to the whole gamut ofphysical activity 伝 om sex to study, are all designed to enhance the pleasures and meamng of li . One can add the layers 0 「 Kabbalistic exercises that are similar tO yoga and Eastern meditation and share a great deal with Sufism. But in the end it is the daily pattern of living that defines the Jewish religion more than any Other single factor. My introduction tO a universal Judaism ln my teens was tO a religion Of tremendous spirituality and vibrancy, very different from the rather pompous, rationalist for- mality of much 0f what passes as Judaism in the 宅 st. Judaism offers another paradigm 0f religious life and experience tO enrich the options ofhuman spirituality. But 0f course, as with all good things today, one has t0 know where to look.

C H R I S T I A N I T Y ln the early 13th century, St. Francis 0f Assisi, ltaly, preached on the necessity ofpenance and founded an order for men , the Franciscans , as 、 vell as one for women , the Poor Clares, named after St. Clare, the order's first mother supe- rior. Subsisting on the alms ofthe 儀 i [ h 応 1 , these men and women VO ℃ d [ 0 live by hiS rules: "in obedience, without property, and in chastity. ' Francis assigned many 0f the brothers tO missionary travel, establishing a new tradition for orders [ 0 come. St. Dominic, born in Spain but influ- ential in France and ltaly as well, founded the Domimcan order, known as the Friars Preachers. Like the FranC1scans, they were a mendicant order. They dedicated themselves [ 0 teaching the gospel in everyday language, and ministering [ 0 the poor at h01 れ e and abroad. From these orders arose some 0f the great thinkers ofthe theological schools, Roger Bacon from the Franciscans and Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinus fr()l れ the Domimcans. ln 1 う 54 the Society ofJesus was founded by lgnatius 0fLoyola, who was born in Spain. The Jesuits, they came to called, were umque among religious orders in dedicating their work to missions abroad at the behest ofthe pope. They educated the young and the poor, and ministered t0 the dis- enfranchised. Their influence was especially felt in the New み orld : They traveled with explorers and conqui s tadores , mimsteri ng t0 the i ndigenous peoples , and later founded distinguished SChOOIS and universlties. NL1merOLIS Other monastic orders for men and women were founded through the early centuries Of the second millennium. Christian monks produced many prized artifacts of medieval culture. From a tiny island monastery 0 伍 the Northumberland coast Of Britain came the Lindisfarne Gospels. These brilliantly illuminated manuscripts on vel- lum, bound in leather and adorned with gems and gold, were created between 71 う and 720. Other significant illuminated manuscripts came out ofWestern European monastenes, rep- resenting a vital stage in the history 0f b00ks. Liturgical music thrived there, [ 00. Modern-day musical notation dates back tO ninth-century manuscripts Of ChantS penned by monks in the Benedictine abbey 0f St. Gall' in Switzerland. The bond between religious and secular leadership in Western Europe strengthened in the year 800 , when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as H01y Roman Emperor. Charlemagne had formed a new realm by combining sections 0f the 01d Roman Empire—largely Gaul—with new areas beyond the Rhine, ln what is Germany today. The great ruler practiced Christianity and saw in himselfa new version 0fDavid, king ofthe lsraelites. He came [ 0 worship on Christmas Day in Rome's Church of St. Peter, as the story goes, and the pope surprised him by sweeping 伝 om the altar and placing on his head the H01y Crown of Lombardy. The crown was said [ 0 have been made Of a nail 伝 01 れ Jesus' cross. According tO an eyewit- ness, "all the faithful Romans, seeing how he loved the holy Roman church and its vicar and how he defended them, cried out with one V01Ce: 、 TO Charles, most pious Augustus, crowned by G0d , great and peace-lovi ng emperor, / victoria—health and victory! ' " Then Leo prostrated him- self, touching his head [ 0 the ground three times tO express reverence for the emperor. Charlemagne s reign presented an ideal ofpoliticalcon- solidation and harmony between throne and papacy that could not be maintained. Through the comlng centuries, struggles continued among regionalleaders for the impe- rialthrone, while favoritism and corruption marred the papal nominating process. ln 1046 the German king Henry lll became emperor. A S01e1 n Christian, he nixed competition among several papal candidates by nommating his own cousin, Bruno, as the next pope. ln keeping with tradition, Bruno tOOk on the name 0 「 a great past pope and became Leo IX. ln his time, the role ofpriests in the Roman church solidified. Every morning they conducted Mass—a cere- monial reci tation Of prayers , Scripture , and creeds called the liturgy, spoken entirely in Latin, and performance 0f 仞 0 旧 NG 例 G ハ : & ヒを God / ″″ 4 んお″臾な災初〃ル〃 4 な川り〃たり , 〃のプん as / げ〃 G 比と化 . 293

G E O G R A P H Y O F R E L I G I O N descent and more excruciati ng the eternal torture. WhO in 5 . He described the churches Constantine had built had a chance at salvation spent tlme after death at a cleans- at the Mount ofOlives and Bethlehem, but he also saw sim- lng ground, described in the P ga / 砿れ and those whose ple details, charged with religious meaning: the palm tree, earthly thoughts and behavior recommended them for for example, the fronds 0 「 WhiCh were strewn in Jesus' eternal salvation ended up, like Dante'S beloved Beatrice, path on hiS arrival in Jerusalem, n()W commemorated as with God in heaven, as he described it ⅲ the Pa ル消瓰 Palm Sunday, the Sunday preceding Easter. By the late F01 れ the fourth century on, Christians traveled [ 0 fourth century, pilgrims followed along sites that sym- special shri nes and cathedrals. By making a pilgrimage, they bolized the 信 [ e 応 1 progress ofJesus' li and Crucifixion. were galmng indulgences—banking up forgiveness for Called the stations ()f the cross, the processl()n IS replicated their sins. Especially important was a VIS1t tO sacred reliCS, ln lmagery and statuary at churches and monasterles which could confer blessings, throughout the world. bring good health, and even Following Old and New work miracles. lt iS said that a Testament S1tes, and sites Of sarcophagus containing the miracles and ofeveryday li in body James—one of Jesus' biblicaltimes , Christians carved disciples—m i raculously floated out their own Holy Land. Even 伝 om Palestine [ 0 Spain. When, the desert became Christian SOil , in the ninth century, a hermit as monasteries built amid rock was wandering in the Finisterre and sand attracted those WhO region, "the end 0f the Earth, wanted [ 0 live like Moses and in Spain, he saw a light shining Jesus in the wilderness. in the woods and named the Justinian founded a monastery place 〃 s た / / , Latin for later dedicated to St. Catheri ne, "field ofstars. " A bishop deter- claiming for Christianity a mined that here was the secret southern Arabian S1te where he grave 0fSt. James, called Santiago in Spanish. Soon pilgrims believed God spoke to Moses out of the burning bush. from France and northern Spain were flocking tO Santiago Mar Saba Monastery still stands on a bluff above the barren de Compostela. A 12th-century pope promised total for- landscape east 0f Bethlehem. A thousand or more men lived giveness [ 0 a11 wh0 made the pilgrimage ln a year when St. at Mar Saba in the seventh century; t()day ten Greek James's special day, July 25 , Ⅱ on a Sunday. M0dern pil- Orthodox monks make their home there. grims still walk one 0 「応 ur maJOr routes tO the magnificent Christians continued tO live in and visit the sites ()f cathedral there, with itS silver reliquary containing the Palestine even ぉ the land came under Muslim rule. Mil itary remains Of St. James. conflicts between S()ldiers ofChristianity and lslam occurred The holiest of all Christian pilgrimages was the one as early as 636 at the Battle 0fYarmuk, on today's Jordan- to PaIestine. The first pilgrim [ 0 record his journey began Syria border. ln 638 , Muslims led by Caliph Umar seized in B ordeaux , i n Roman GauI , and reached Palestine by land Jerusalem from the Persians. By 6 う 6 , the Middle East AB()VE' ・切な、「川″〃ノ / んⅥノ〃 4 〃ノ C ん / ノち功ィり川〃ノ 0 ルイ N 吶で一 Da C んみ 4 / ノ〃 P ()PP() 7 五 : 0 〃 / んかれ・の , 加〃ノげ″んル切 / ん First C 読 , C み所〃 4 なんノ川〃肭 A 〃〃り訪 . 298

G E O G R A P H Y O F R E L I G I O N Samarkand was home [ 0 lsmail al-Bukhari, the great the sanctity of the tomb. The new mosque included a lslamic scholar, of prophetic traditions, ん坊 , which were colonaded courtyard. lnterior walls were decorated with gold narrative stories about the teachings Of the Prophet. AI- and mosa1CS ln lntrlcate designs intertW1tung with grace- Bukhari identified and put together a collection ofauthen- ful Arabic calligraphy ⅲ a style that inspired the EngIish tic narratlves ofthe Prophet's life and practice. For example, word "arabesque. ' Stonemasons built a bench with an tO illustrate permissibility ofsubstituting sand where water arrow carved intO it, then placed it where Muhammad was was not available t0 perform ablutions, al-Bukhari cited two believed to have sat i n prayer and poi nted the arrow toward of the Prophet's contemporaries whO reported that he said, Mecca. This essential feature evolved into the あ an "Passing dusted hands over the face and backs of the hands ornamented niche in the m()Sque S lnterl()r wall oriented SO is sufficient for you. ' Over a period of 16 years al-Bukhari that when believers face it, they are facing Mecca. is said tO have collected Prophetic traditions, checked their Similar aesthetics came intO play near the rtllns Of reliability, and crossreferenced them with the Qur'an. His Ctesiphon, capital Of the overthrown Sassanian Empire, rules for inclusion established standards or criteria f01 ー when the Abbas id caliphs moved i nto the town of B aghdad lowed by subsequent scholars of lslam. in the eighth century. They established His collection of 2 602 traditions filled the glorious City 0f Peace, from which art, mne volumes. Together with a similar SCIence, and literature poured throughout anthology by scholar Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj the next five centuries. Baghdad was aI-Nisaburi, they form the central core of designed as a circle With three concentr1C the hadith, second only to the Qur'an the C1ty walls. The caliph's palace stood in the sacred literature Of Sunni lslar . center, with army quarters surrounding it. Citizens lived inside the next ring and merchants traded outside the city wall. T H E C I T Y O F Here from 786 to 809 ruled Harun al- P E A C E Rashid, the caliph whose ruthlessness turned tO fascination, thanks tO the young T H E A R T I S T R Y and opulence admired in the great mosques tOday dates back tO wife who told him bedtime tales. Their story lives forever ⅲ the book 4 グんのル the age ofthe caliphs. Al-Walid, 1 t ofthe Umayyad caliphs, rebuilt the mosque 0f Medina t0 match ルんのル , known t0 the world as The T ん″〃ノ〃〃ノ 0 怩 the grandeur 0f the Great Mosque that he had built in ハな房 4 〃 N なな . The Abassid Palace in Baghdad, near the Damascus. He sent artisans from Byzantium and Egypt , and North Gate of the old city wall, dates to the 12th century. materials such as gold slabs, and tiles of glass, marble, N0thing remains of the original caliph's palace. Here the House of Wisdom, Bayt al-Hikmah, was and other colored stone. TO the dismay of the residents of founded in 830 : it was a lively center ofscholarship and sci- Medina, he razed Muhammad's home and garden, which ence, perhaps the greatest educational center in the world caused a wall ofhis mausoleum t0 collapse and revealed some at that time. The great bOOkS Of science, literature and Of itS contents. A more SOlid structure was built tO secure OPPOSITE' ・ The Q 房怩 , 比 g 川〃〃ノ , 4 〃ノ川砒 / 4 ) / みえ「〃〃ル岬″所ど勗 0 / ん〃ツ〃なげツ下 , 川確死 . ハ砌 : ハア″ / ・、リ初ん / 川砌ツ訪 4 ん乙川〃ん〃ノイル〃アのは切た / 0 川〃ん / 〃み″ gh 川 0 旧 NG 例 G : 川〃ノールツんノ / 〃のたゆん化 , 14 坊ィり , 〃ル岬能 D 〃怩 , レななな / ん、・ノイ石、んルハん 4. 360

M Y J U D A I S M ーー R A B B I J E R E M Y R O S E N , んり〃ノり〃 were not as religiously committed as we were, and the I WA S brought up in Great Britain tO el fortunate Jewish world was full of skeptics of different degrees. that my family had survived the Second rld 気 r and But our religious life was a pattern ()f behavior, a system HitIer. I could not understand why there were people in Of traditions, special days, and dietary restrictlons that the world who wanted to kill Jews , but I was reassured that encouraged us tO eat, study, and l, at any rate, was safe. play as well as pray, as a family My father, a rabbi and edu- and as a community. There は S cator, had tremendous respect no feeling Of superiority or exclu- for British values and loved 、ユド ? げコ冂コ餮気 S1veness. We mixed With all sorts Western culture. Yet at the same and types. Theology only reared time he was a passionately itS head when we were asked mitted, very traditional Jew whO why we didn't believe in Jesus brought us up to enJOY our reli- - 00 0 、 0 , 00 、 0 、ト 00 こ 10 ドー・リ・ 1 コト N' つじつう・リ 0 つ・ the way the 10Ca1 Christians did. gion despite itS occasional incon- . 第、 1 にトリ 1 こ洋らーココッハ 1 い veniences. I was vaguely aware Of 物 *' ユっ響 01 やし 01 ) い 1 When I was in my teens, お襾 12 い 11 の 0 ド n ? トルも。 : my father decided that I needed the Eastern European origins ; 'C ・つ 10 ) つい ) つ、 01 , つつハすじ : 第加じ , 0 ”当ル , : 「、 an inJectIon ofpassionate, SChOl- of his parents, but my li and arly Judaism. And I was sent 0 self-perception were inextrlca- = 卩ざュ 1 彎 1. っコ刑い、・、つ 。 1 、 ptn 与い阜う北 , いト 20 リ , 、 (somewhat reluctantly because bly bound up with living in the Oxfordshire countryside. I heard soccer my passlon, not books) to lsrael to study in a anti-Jewish remarks in the local yeshiva, defined in lsrael as town, but then abuse was alSO a full-time instltution that exclusively taught Talmud directed toward the city slickers whO ventured out Of and advanced JudaiC studies, not frOI an academic, but London over weekends. I was constantly aware Of from a committed, and nowadays one might say 'funda- 'others," but tOOk it as a natural way Of things. Living mentalist,' point Of view. When I arrived in lsrael I within a warm, protective family cocoon, I did not let it encountered for the first tlme the racial and sectarlan impinge on my life. I was aware that most Other Jews AB()VE: A 巧功ーリ 4 〃〃立ァゆハん 4 ア ag ツツん川勗〃勗ななレ。〃ノゐ 7 んんび房消立ハ〃ルえんル 4 〃ノな 4 ノ 0 〃 .

B U D D H I S M which point the way. ' Fa Hsien survived, though, and he made it to Taxila, ⅲ modern-day Pakistan, at the 応 ot ofthe Hindu Kush. From there he traveled south and east, vislting all the significant Buddhistsites along the Ganges River, then completed the circuit by sea, coasting south tO Sri Lanka and Sumatra before heading north for Nanking. He arrived home nearly 16 years after he had begun. More than 2()() years later, another Chinese monk headed west. By 627 A. D. , when Xuan Tsang set out on the Silk Road, Buddhism had spread its influence through much of central and eastern Chi na, and throughout the coast- line and island regions 0fSoutheast Asia. The religion was thoroughly institutionalized in Xuan Tsang's native China. Chang'an, growmg intO an enormous city oftrade, was the home of a major Buddhist university. From there Xuan Tsang traveled t0 Dunhuang, then t00k the northern Silk Road passage and visited sites throughout the lndian sub- continent. When he returned tO Chang'an, crowds greeted him as a hero. Crown Prince Li Zhi ordered a pagoda spe- cially erected tO house the hundreds Of sacred manuscripts he brought back with him. Modern archaeologists used the journals Fa Hsien and Xuan Tsang in their search for the ancient Buddhist sites of lndia. The two pilgrims had found Lumbini and Bodh Gaya deserted, but guided by records ofland forms and architectural ruins, 19th-century scholars were able tO identify the sites. An already complex religious culture prevailed inChina by う 00 A. D. Neolithic sites show the prehistoric roots of Chinese ancestor worship, expressed in the care with which burial sites were provided with elegant containers holding food and drink for the passage to the hereafter. Other ancient artifacts manifest 5 ()()()-year-old practices ofsuper- natural divination. Linguists and archaeologists have come up with an explanation for the engraved fragments Of OX scapula and tortoiseshell unearthed in the Henan and Shandong Provinces. Apparently a shaman carved a ques- tion on the bone, heated it in a ritual fire, then read an answer from the way the heat cracked the bone. Questions and answers, and verification that the ans 、 vers did come true, have a11 been deciphered in the pictograph characters carved on these bone fragments. C 0 N F U C I A N I S M A N D D A 0 1 S M 、 ' - 0 V E N I N with China's rich indigenous culture were two organized religions and philosophies, Confucianism and Daoism, both well established by the time of any contact with Buddhism. Confucius—or, more correctly, K ung Fu-tzu—was born in うう 1 B. C. , nearly the same tlme as Mahavira, founder of Jainism, and the Buddha. More a philosopher than a religious leader, Confucius offered a view of the world and human beings' role in it that developed IntO a state religion during several phases Of China'S long history. Responsibility began in the home, he advised: Children should respect and obey their parents, and from that 1 れ Odel , rules for citizenship, decorum, and SOCial order unfolded. "Hold faithfulness and sincerity first principles , " reads a proverb from Confucius's B り磋イ A 〃 4 ん山 ( た″〃 ) 切 ) , one Ofthe central works ofConfucianism. The practical sim- plicity 0f these words, with their emphasis on honesty and thoughtfulness, characterizes the philosophy as a whole. Confucius emphasized that respectful behavior in the here and now was the key t0 achieving the larger goal 0f SOCial harmony. lt is harder to pin down the history and the message Of Daoism. Historically, it was the culminatlon Of several grassroots religious upriS1ngs in China during the first tWO centuries A. D. lts h01y b00k, the Dao D と〃 & is ascribed [ 0 the legendary, or maybe mythical, Lao Zi, claimed to be an elder contemporary 0f Confucius. The new religion oppo 7 Ⅵ、 0 ハ化〃ノ / ん " 川・レ ) 加 H 膨〃 " / 〃 g ル坊い″″〃〃″イ 7 S ん〃 , 功い 4 げノ〃川″〃なノ〃ん〃 2 とイ D ⅳノ「 . LI. 0 旧 NG 例 G 暦 : A B ″ノノん「ん 4 ノ第りル 4 ツツ〃た″ 4 〃 , C ん , ん川ノ〃 R 加物〃 g - 233 4 んんル功いなみ天 4. 161