f g h 1 k 51 1 and 51 ln standard southern British English, r is only pronounced before a vowel sound. ln most kinds ofAmerican English, r is pronounced ⅲ all positions where it is written in a word, and it changes the quality of a vowel that comes before it. So words like car, turn, 0 ガ sound very different ⅲ British and American speech. ln many varieties ofAmerican English,t and イ both have a very light voiced pronunciation /d/ between vowels ー SO writer and e ら for example, can sound the same. ln British English they are quite different: /lraltö(r)/ and /lralda(r)/. Some words WhiCh pronounced With /u:/ most varieties 0fAmerican English have /ju:/ in British EngIish. These are words in which 市 , d,t or れ (and sometimes s or l) are followed by リ or ew. e れ市″豆行 c US /1nlOu:zi ・æstlk/ GB /ln ・ eju:zilæstlk/ れィれ e new US /ldu:ti/ US /tu:n/ US /nu:/ 襯″襯ⅲ 4 US /lllu:mrnelt/ GB /ldju:ti/ GB /tju:n/ GB /nju:/ GB /lllju:mlnelt/ Words ending in unstressed -ile ( e. g. な〃 e , reptile, 襯な豆 le , senile) are pronounced with /all/ in British EngIish; some are pronounced with /l/ in American English. fertüe US /lf3:rtl/ (rhyming with な I の GB / ・ f3:ta11/ (rhyming with 〃襯の Some long words ending in 辺 -ery or -0 Ⅳ are pronounced differently, with one more syllable in American English. secretary US /lsekrateri/ GB /lsekratri/ Borough and 市 oro リ g 〃 are pronounced differently. US /bArou,IOArou/ GB / わ Ara ′・ 0Ara / Words borrowed from French are often stressed differently, especially if their pronunciation ends with a vowel sound. The final vowel is usually stressed in American English but not in British EngIish. US /bællel/ GB / わ記 lel / US /pæltel/ GB /lpætel/ use and スれ d is sometimes left out in a very literary or poetic style, but this is unusual. Alice 〃 0 立 ed e 襯 . れ e the な e Peter addressed 市 e 襯 , George わ 0 ″ g the s 襯内“れ We drank, talked “〃イ danced. わ尾 4 イ and cheese の滬 before the last. When we jOin two or more grammatically similar expressions, we usually put For rules about the use ofcommas, see 455.1 , 5. My イ r 襯 s 4 尾〃可 d んれ e despair, d . page 45

87 1 2 88 bath and bathe 87 bath and bathe Pronunciation: わ市 /ba:0/ わ砒〃ⅲ g / わ 0 : 01 リ / 市 /ba:0t/ The verb わ砒〃 is used ()n British EngIish) to mean ・ wash oneself in a bath C 〃〃 d 尾〃〃 az be 〃 za わ“尾 g 襯ケ . The verb is rather formal, and is not used is American English; in an informal style, we usually say 〃 4 わ砒〃 (British) or た e わ砒ん (British and American). Ba 市 can also be used with an object ()n British English). れ ' S 坦リ r ル r れわ“ the わ必 (US... わ 4 e the わ 4 わ必 ) わ“ e Pronunciation: わ 4 市 e /belö/ わⅲ g / わ el 朝リ / 市 /belöd/ Bathe ()n British English) can mean ・ swim for pleasure'. lt is rather formal in this sense (and is not used like this in American EngIish); in an informal style, we usually say 〃レ e S Ⅲわ〃 , go 工 br S Ⅲわれ , go S Ⅲわれ〃〃 g or just S Ⅲわ〃 . Let'S go 工 br $ ー i 〃 ~ / 〃 the river. ln American EngIish, わ市 e is commonly used to mean 'take a bath'. 7 Ⅲわ“ e 梔ル尾 1g0 bed. Bathe can also be used ()n both British and American EngIish) with an object, t0 talk about putting water on a part of the body that hurts (for instance sore eyes). Youreyes 4 尾尾ー 10 リ 0 リ g / なわ e e 襯 . TO lie in the sun is to s リ〃わ市 e (NOT わ召語 ). be.• progressive forms ー襯わ e ⅲ g / ア 0 〃尾 being etc + adjective / noun We can use this structure tO talk about actions and behaviour, but not usually t0 talk about feelings. Compare: 物リ加 gstu 〃 ( = 物リ ' 尾 doingstupid things.) ー was being cat ℃尹〃 . ( = ⅱ doing 襯 e 市ⅲ g cat ℃襯必 ) Wh0's 加 ga s 〃ケ , e 〃 / 初〃ロ〃〃アノ″〃 0 Ⅲ . (N OT 第 e ⅲ g 物〃〃ツを丑ひ ) (N OT 4 - わ e ⅲ g 卍 e げイ罕紹 ed... ) Note the difference between He's わ e 加 g 豆 c ん ()B = He's 襯ⅲ〃 g ) and For the use 0f4 襯 being etc in passive verb forms, see 407.2. page 86

4 5 6 have ( 4 ) : have (got) ー possession, relationships etc 241 repetition and habit When we are talking about repeated states, got-forms of 〃 4 レ e are less often used; dO is normally used in questions and negatives. Compare: 尸リ e got 0 〃肥 . ー 0 尹 e 〃“ 0 〃 la e. 〃 10 リ got 行襯 e go ん 0 〃イ 0 れ市な weekend? DO 0 リ ever リ e 行襯 e go カ 0 れ d の滝 Sorry,I “れ g 可のⅣ beer. We dO 〃 ' れパリ襯ケ住わ e 邵ⅲ the house. progressive forms, weak forms and contractions Progressive forms Of 〃レ e are not used With these ・ state' meanings. ー“ (t) 4 〃 ea イ c 〃 e. (NOT 44 - 物“ⅵ〃 g 召 e44 e 〃の Contractions and weak forms (see 588 ) are used before go た ln British English, contractions are also possible before nouns with determiners like / れ , SO 〃 , 〃必〃 0 , e レ e り′ . 尸 got 〃 ro わ厄襯 . We've some 行 c た e なル r the opera, ア 0 リ ' 尾ⅲ尾立 e (GB) れ 0 e 化 (GB) She's every chance 可 go 襯 ed . (GB) British-American differences Traditionally, do-forms of have have been used in British English mostly to express habit or repetition. Compare (GB) : DO ア 0 リ 0 尹 e 〃 meetings? 〃ア 0 リ got 4 meeting イの ln American English, do-forms are not limited ⅲ this way. Compare (US): DO 10 リ 0 尹 e 〃 have 襯 ee 行〃 g DO ア 0 ″ meeting d ()R 〃坦リ go ー meeting ア ln modern British English (which is heavily influenced by American English), do-forms are common even When there iS no idea Of repetition. DO 坦リ time go the わ c なⅢ ee ん夜滬 (US/modern GB) ln British EngIish, short question and negative forms of have are possible, though these are often formal. They are not used in American English. Compare: 〃 0 〃の 7 〃〃 0 ⅲな〃 e 〃 (formal GB only) DO ア 0 ″の 7 4 〃〃 0 ⅲ加肥〃 (US/GB) Birmingham れ the charm 可物ⅸ or 石市〃わ″ rg ん (formal GB only) Birmingham do 〃 0 ー az 肥 the charm ... ()S / GB) Contracted short forms Of have are used only ⅲ British English. Compare: We've 4 襯襯ⅲ g 〃 0 ⅲ the 〃襯 ge. ()B only) We / We'vegota s Ⅲⅲ〃れⅲ g 〃 00 /... (US/GB) ln very informal American speech, people may drop ' (but not 勺 before g . 4 ' レの got 4 〃 ro わ厄襯 . Got- and do-forms may be mixed in American EngIish, especially when short answers, reply questions and tags follow got-forms. アリ ego ー 4 new 4 〃才襯夜ル ' ・ YO ″ a03 ' / dO 〃 7 市ⅲん we'vegotanychoice, イ 0 Ⅲ page 231

50 1 American and British EngIish 50 ス″ oge 市邵 can also be used to give totals. That's .38 知 ge 催 . l'd 〃た e 市尾 e do 認〃 ge 催 . ス〃 ge 市 usually means ・ everybody/ everything together'. Come 0 〃 , 卲 e Ⅳわ od. ア s ⅲ & み〃 ge 催れ 0 . 乃な the plates 襯レ oge 催ⅲ the s ⅲた . T “〃 went the cinema ge 市催 . American and British EngIish These two varieties of EngIish are very similar. There are a few differences of grammar and spelling, and rather more differences ofvocabulary and idiom. Modern British EngIish is heavily influenced by American English, so some Of contrasts are disappearing. Pronunciation is sometimes very different, but most American and British speakers can understand each other without great difficulty. gramm ar Here are examples of the most important differences. Note that in many cases, two different forms are possible in one variety of EngIish, while only one Of the forms is possible or normal in the other variety. For more details, lOOk up the sections in Other parts Of the b00k where these structures are discussed. American English 〃 e ノリ立 went home. OR 〃 e ' $ ノリ立 g の肥〃 0 襯 e. DO ア 0 “〃 ro わ〃滝 OR yo “ g 4 〃 ro わ / e ″滝 l've 〃 e ロ・ / ケ go な e れた〃 0 Ⅲ her. ー ( ca see car co 襯ⅲ & Herfeet were sore because her shoes 〃 ' ⅵ襯〃 or 厩砒 he be . ・Ⅳ〃い 0 リわ町 it?' 7 襯必 The CO 〃〃〃な e meetS 〃 70rr0 ′ . ()n the phone) 〃 e 〃 0 , なな S の滝 れ / 00 燔〃た e it'sgoing rain. He / 00 た砒〃花“な作 4 れ ge. (very informal) 0 R He / 00 た e 砒 me really s な〃 ge British EngIish e ' リ go 〃 e わ 0 襯 e. (See 419.5 , 305.2. ) 〃肥 0 “ g 〃 ro わ厄〃滝 (See 241.6. ) ハ肥〃卲 e ロ・ e ケ go ーん〃 0 Ⅲ〃催 . (See 228.7. ) ー ca れ e car co 襯ⅲ g. (See 125.1. ) Herfeet were SO 尾 because her shoes アな e イわケ . (See 300.3. ) れ ' ⅵ襯〃 0 な社市砒 he $ 0 “ be 雇 (See 541. ) . 7″mY催の . '(See 165. ) The CO 〃〃れ″ e meet/meets ー 0 〃 70rr0 ,. (See 503.1. ) 〃 e 〃 0 , な“ー S の滝 (See 565.5. ) れ / 00 〃 e it'sgoing rain. (See 74.3. ) He 0 ん ed 砒 me “〃 j' s 作れ ge (See 21. ) page 41

2 3 4 5 477 1 relatives ( 5 ) : advanced points 477 4 ー not used Whatis only used as a nominal relative, meaning ・ the thing(s) which'. lt cannot be used as an ordinary relative pronoun after a pronoun. We / za 怩〃 'tg 可 e 市加 g 一 10 ″ 0 e 尾 d. (NOT ... - 円ⅲ & れ .. ) 肥 0 〃加 g “ー keeps me Ⅲな coffee. Ⅵ use which, not Ⅲ〃 44 to refer to a whole clause that comes before. S 川“″ ie George, which 〃 za 24 襯レ e ″〃 / za 〃〃必 (N 0 T ... - 丑 de 4 襯卍 e げ覗丑召〃〃周 ー一 as a determiner Ⅲ〃 / c 〃 / Ⅲ〃 0 襯 / Ⅲ〃 ose , but can sometimes come after it in a very formal style. Ⅲ c 〃 and 0 工Ⅲ〃 ose. The determiner most often comes before 0 工 〃 , わ 0 市 , 怩 ra / , 夜 zo ″ g 〃 , 襯の andfew) can be used with 可Ⅲ / 10 襯 , 可 ln non-identifying clauses, quantifying determiners (). g. some, 〃必〃 0 〃 e , 0 〃 w 0 工 w 0 〃も〃 0 〃 e 0 工ん ic etc relatives ( 5 ) : advanced points For other uses of question-word clauses, see 460.5. We have “ー which we need. (Modern English: We have w れ怩 need.) unusual in modern English. T 〃Ⅲ / c 〃 used to be used in the same way as Ⅲ〃 4 た This, t00 , is very (Modern English: oe r / A 〃 y わ 0 イ ) ′ル 0... ) Wh0 立 ea な〃〃Ⅲ・ se 立 ea ななん (Shakespeare, 0 市 e 〃 0 ) very unusual. 'whoever', ・ anybody who' or 'the person(s) who'. ln modern English, this is ln older EngIish, Ⅲわ 0 could be used as a nominal relative, meaning older EngIish: 0 and 一 which For more about how-clauses, see 254. For details ofthe use of Ⅲ〃 oe らⅢ′ la 怩 r and other words ending in -ever, see 596. . ew ⅲ w 厩 c れ ... ) ん 00 たー 0 / 肥な e な襯 e. ( = れ e れ e r10 ″Ⅲ〃 0 come なア〃 e Ⅲ / 襯 e. ( = Any イれた .. ) . the 襯 e “市 e れ ... ) We've わ 0 ″ g ′な cottage / 〃 the countryf01 ・ e 〃 we 尾尾 . . the place where... ) ー 0 立 e 〃市ⅲた 4 わ 0 砒 w e わ〃 0 リ . ( = . 掣加 g “ー 10 リⅢのル ) Take w r ア 0 ″Ⅲのル ( = Ⅲ〃 / C 〃 e レ e ら Where, ′〃 ere レ e らⅢわ e 〃 , 〃 0 Ⅲ . ()ther words that are used as nominal relatives include Ⅲ〃 4 レ er: , u,'hoever, other nominal relatives l'll g 加 e 0 リ what e ゆ / ca れ . ( = .. “れア e ゆ“ c の 7. ) What 襯 0 れ he わ co 襯 es 介 0 襯わな襯〃 j'. ↓〃 ~ ー a determiner With a in a nominal relative clause. page 493 atseaforseveral 襯 0 〃市 & ()R . 0 工 IV 0 ー〃 some... ) T 〃〃 / c た″〃アわ 0 砒 - / 04 ホ可尾尹倍 e $ 0 襯 e 0 工 0 had been

532 1 2 3 4 5 spelling ( 4 ) : hyphens 532 Ca 〃 has -ize in both British and American English. N0te also 4 〃 4 $ e and 〃 ara ツ ()S analyze and 〃 ara ). If in doubt, remember that in British EngIish -ise is almost always acceptable. For American English, consult an American dictionary. spelling ( 4 ) : hyphens What are hyphens? Hyphens are the short lines ( - ) that we put between words in expressions like 行 c た e 0 か ce or 既功わの滬 . two-part adjectives We usually put a hyphen in two-part adjectives in which the second part ends in -ed or イ〃 & blue-eyed わ ro ん e れ功な ed nice-looking We also often hyphenate two-part adjectives or noun modifiers which contain the sense Of 'between'. grey-green ( = わ etu ′〃 grey の滬 green) 〃肥ん 0 〃イ 0 〃 - PCD ・なア / g / な the Scotland-France 襯砒 c 〃 4 〃ス〃 glO - ス襯 e ca れ agreement phrases used as adjectives a phrase as adjective before a we Often use hyphens. Compare: 4 〃 0 0 ′ or ′れ i れ er. 〃 e 0 ー 0 工 wor た . T were 0 e 尾 d $ 00 0 黼〃 . two-part nouns,• stress ln British English, hyphens are common in two-word compound nouns when the first word has the main stress. 〃 4 〃催〃 0 〃 (compare 4 〃〃 e 尸わ ag ) so 襯 m 辺〃 (compare 襯 4 た e ツ〃 ) ツリ〃〃 / 〃 g - S 〃 oes (compare r リ〃〃 i 〃 g ーⅢ r ) llorry-driver (compare の e にⅢ r ) prefixes The prefixes co-, 〃 0 ル and ex- are sometimes separated from what follows by hyphens. れ ' 5 Br なな〃 4 〃ハ襯 e ca 〃 CO - 〃 rod c 0 ″ . We 〃 at 〃 0 〃 0 / 〃 0 れ - i れリ 0 ん e 襯 e れれ He's 0 〃 e 0 工わ催 e 工 - And other prefixes may be separated by hyphens in order to avoid unusual or CO ″〃 r - re レ 0 / ″行 0 〃 misleading combinations Of letters. page 555

3 35 I 2 3 4 all ( 3 ) : all (of) with nouns and pronouns 35 older English ln older English, 4 〃 could be used alone to mean ・ everybody' or ・ everything' (). g. Te 〃 me “〃 ; A 〃な / 0 新 AII 尾 dead). This only happens regularly ⅲ modern EngIish in dramatic contexts like newspaper headlines (). g. SPY TELLS んん ). all ( 3 ) : all (of) with nouns and pronouns “〃 and 4 〃可 ス〃 ( 0 カ can modify nouns and pronouns. Before a noun with a determiner (for example the, 襯必市な ) , 4 〃 and 〃 ofare both possible. American EngIish usually has 〃可 She's 〃住〃 ( 0 カ the cake. AII ( 0 カ襯介 ie 〃ホ〃た e 市〃 g. Before a noun with no determiner, we do not normally use 0 AII children れ be 市類 c 襯た (N 0T ・ , 4 〃 -0 工 e ん〃 4 ド e .. ) For more about 可ⅲ noun phrases, see 157.4. “〃 0 工 + personal pronoun With personal pronouns, we use 〃 0 工 + object form. ス〃可を 0 リ / 市 e 襯 can be the subject or object of a clause. AII 0 工 c 〃 come 襯 orro Ⅲ . (NOT 4 〃 - e 、 .. ) She's ⅲⅵ d “〃 0 工 0 “ . Ma げ厩住〃可市 e わ催 lo pronoun + 〃 Ⅵ宅 can put 〃 after pronouns used as objects. She's ⅲⅵ d 0 ““〃 . Mary sent 夜・ / 0 レ e 市 e “〃 . ハ肥襯 4 イ e ー 4 〃 something eat. This does not happen with complement pronouns or in short answers. ム市砒〃 0 工 e 襯 N OT - な - 語・語 e 冊 - 襯 ) 財 Tho 市 d 坦″ⅲⅵ ' 〃 0 工市 e 襯 . (NOT - 料肥丑〃 = - ' ) AII can follow a subject pronoun (). g. ~ 〃 went 〃 0 襯の , but in this case it belongs grammatically with the verb (see 36 ) and may be separated from the pronoun (). g. ~ ん肥 4 〃 gone / 襯の . For the American plural pronoun 0 リ 4 〃 , see 424.2. types Of noun ス″ is used mostly before uncountable and plural nouns. 4 〃 the Ⅲ砒催 However, 〃 can be used before some singular countable nouns referring to things that can naturally be divided into parts. 〃〃 za 口 ee ん 4 〃 the Ⅲ 4 ア With other singular countable nouns, it is more natural to use Ⅲ〃 0 (). g. the For the difference between 召〃 and e 怩 see 37. w 0 ル立 0 げ ). For details, see 38. page 33

2 3 4 5 6 quite 467 N0te that some adjectives and adverbs can have both gradable and non- gradable uses; with these, ⅲ has two possible meanings in British English. ln American English 4 ⅵ generally means something like ・ very', not ・ fairly/rather'. with verbs Quite can be used to modify verbs, especially in British English. The meaning depends on whether the verb is gradable or not. ーⅵ〃〃わ she's れ 0 〃 e 可〃 close 介〃ホ . 4 10 ″ 4 ⅵれな ed = Ha 肥ア 0 リ co 襯〃〃なわ ed? ) word order With nouns Quite can be used with なれ + noun. lt normally comes before / 4 〃 if there is a gradable adjective or no adjective. lt's ⅵ“れ e da. 必 We Ⅲ砒 c 4 ⅲⅱれ re $ 〃 g ア〃れ立ⅲ g . She's な e Ⅲ 0 襯 4 が The 〃 ar Ⅳ was な e success. With non-gradable adjectives, 4 ⅵ normally comes after / 4 れ . れⅢ住 4 ⅵけ d . (NOT 4 & 4 ⅵねア e イは 4 9 ln British EngIish, 4 ⅲ is sometimes used before 市 e. YOll're i the ″ ~ OS ー exciting 〃 74 〃 l've ever た〃 0 Ⅲ〃 . He'sgoingquite the wrong 4 必 comparrsons Quite is not used directly before comparatives. She's ra 催 / 襯“ c 加わな 0 催 4 〃襯 e. But note the expression 4 リな e better, meaning ・ completely recovered' (from an illness). Quite 豆襯〃 ar means ( ⅲ British English) ・ fairly/ rather similar'; ⅵ市ガ尾〃ー means ・ completely different'. 4 ⅵわれび〃 0 ー etc Quite 4 わな and 9 ⅵⅢ (informal) have fairly positive meanings ー they are almost the same as ″な e 4 れ We're 4 レⅲ g ⅵ“わな可な 0 ″わ厄Ⅲ / 市 the ホノリ立〃 0 Ⅲ . We 〃 10 ″ g 厄 the place Ⅲ 0 襯 d be e 襯〃わ ac な ta 〃ア市 e 尾 were ⅵ afew 〃 eo 〃厄市 e 尾 . れ 0 ーな e Ⅳ 4 ⅲ means ・ not completely' or ・ not exactly'. lt can be used before adjectives, adverbs, verbs and nouns, including nouns with 市 e. l' 襯れ 0 ー e 尾 d ーⅢ 0 〃 7 わ ea 襯 / 〃″ She 市 d れ川〃 4 ⅲ工立 e 〃 0 ″ g 〃 r 4 尾 co . ー d0 がれ〃ⅲん坦″ ' 尾ⅵ right, / 初 4 カ雇 ー d0 れ嬲な e g 尾 e. That's れ 0 ー 4 な e the co / 0 ″ r ー wanted. For the differences between 4 ⅵ耘ケ , ra 市邵 and 〃 r Ⅳ , see 205. For other structures used to express degree, see 153 ー 156. page 482

3 4 5 6 352 1 must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) to 352 negatives: prohibitions British people can use 〃Ⅲ立〃 / 襯加 7 to say that things should not be done, or tell people not to do things. Ca 〃 7 is also possible, and is normal in American English. The go ″肥厩尾ケ襯加 't/c 〃 e は〃 eo 〃厄Ⅲ 0 〃 r 物リ加 ' ″ ca 〃 0 〃 e 〃な〃 4 尾 el ″厩〃 ChristmasDay. NOte that 襯リ立れ 0 ー / 襯リ s 加 7 is not used to say that things are unnecessary. This idea is expressed by 0 〃 0 肥 e イ or do 〃〃 4 . YO リ don'tneed ね g レな go Sco 〃 at . ln British EngIish, we can give permission not to do things with need 〃 . YO リ needn't Ⅲ or た襯 orro Ⅲ 0 リ dO 〃 7 Ⅲ 4 ′な . ()S 物″ do れ“知Ⅲ 0 ... ) past necessity and obligation Mustis not normally used tO talk about past obligation (except in indirect speech ー see below). This is because 襯ⅱ s used mainly for giving orders and advice and for making recommendations, and one cannot dO these things in the past. 〃 4 イ is used t0 talk about ・ outside' obligation in the past. / “イ cycle 市尾 e miles school Ⅲ〃夜Ⅲ c 雇 For 襯ー + perfect infinitive expressing conclusions about the past, see 350.4. indirect sp eech れィ立 can be used (especially in British English) after a past reporting verb as if it were a past tense. The doctor 覊市 4 け〃 smoking. Obligation can also be reported with 〃 ad and Ⅲ 0 リ have . The イ oc の r 市砒〃 za イ / 0 ““ね立 0 〃砌 10 たⅲ g. 襯ー and $ 0 Should can be used as a weaker form of 襯靨れ Compare: T 〃砒 ca 甲襯ー be c 厄 4 〃 ed. ( = れな 4 伝 0 ルケ necessary.) T 〃砒 ca 甲可 0 “ be cleaned. ( = れⅢ 0 リ be g00 イ . ) For more about the difference between ″Ⅲ立 and 10 襯 4 see 496. For more information about 〃 4 曾 0 り , see 243 ; for more about the difference between 襯″立 and / , see 352. must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) to There are some differences between 襯″立 and 〃レ e . concluding that something is certain BOth 襯リ立 and 〃 (t) can be used tO express the conclusion that something iS certain. Must iS unusual in this sense in American English, especially in speech. 〃宅 (t) used t0 be unusualin British English in page 344

2 3 must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) tO 352 thiS sense, it iS now becoming common. T 〃な襯ー the Ⅲ or 立匆わⅲ the Ⅲ 0 河 d. (GB) ()R T 〃な 0 り知わ e e Ⅲ or 匆わ… ) 物リ襯ー梔匆たⅲ g. (GB) ()R 物リ“ 0 り知わ e 匆んⅲ & ) Negative conclusions are not usually expressed with 襯″立〃 0 た T 〃砒 c 住れ be 〃な襯 0 市催ー e ' S 〃 0 例 0 ″ g ん (NOT in British English - 〃 - “総剏与 - わ e ・ - な - 丑田語 ... ) Does 〃 0 ー〃レ e is used tO say that something is not necessarily true. dog's been ん襯ⅲ g 0 リ r chickens.' do ″“ね be イ og ーな could be Conclusions about the past are usually expressed with 〃Ⅲ立 followed by the perfect infinitive 恤住 + past participle). ー〃 ear 0 リ ' been Pa go れ液 . T 〃ー襯ー 4 been ⅲ尾立ⅲ g. (N OT - 〃襯物 - ね - 物砒 - 併ト円 , e ⅲ & ) necessity and obligation グリ立 and わ 4 (t) to can both be used in British English to talk about necessity. ln American English, 〃 4 怩 is more common, especially in speech. 2 れなⅣ“知 g 夜 10 ″ g 〃〃 g の滬 water 既市 are gro Ⅲ〃 ro 〃催 BOth verbs can be used in British EngIish tO talk about obligation. ()n American English, 〃 4 レ e is the normal form. ) British English 0ften makes a distinction as follows. Mustis used mostly to talk about the feelings and wishes 0f the speaker and hearer ー for example, t0 give or ask for orders. Ha (t) is used mostly to talk about obligations that come from ・ outside' ー for example from laws, regulations, agreements and Other people's orders. Compare: ー襯ー立 0 〃 smoking. (I want t0. ) l've got 知立 0 〃 s 襯 0 んⅲ g. Doctor's orders. T 〃なな 4 な治厄〃 ar We 尾 4 〃ア襯ー go 0 襯 e. T 〃ななんケ〃 r わ砒 we've go れ 0 go 〃 0 襯 e because 可市 e わ - な er. l've got わ ad 0 市肥ゴ襯 na た e の 7 〃〃 0 ⅲ 2 夜な with the de れ廰れ ー ca れ 7C0 襯 e Ⅲ 0 ⅸ襯 0 な 0 Ⅲ morningbecausel'vegot 知 see the de 〃行立 ー〃 0 ' cloc た . YO リ really 襯ー go t0 c 〃リ尾〃〃 e S Ⅲ滬 4 アーア 0 リ / 怩れ 7 わ ee れ rages. (I am telling you t0. ) Ca 市 0 〃 cs az 肥知 go church 0 〃 S Ⅲ滬ロ . (Their religion tells them to. ) M ー″・ dirty 0 のパ″ the ⅲ〃 ()s it personally important for YO ) DO 10 リ have 知 wear 4 tie れ″ or た ()s there a regulation?) Opinions about what people should d0 can be expressed with 〃Ⅲ or ″雇 尸リ ego 一知 go 、厄 ra 匆わわな e Ⅲ襯 orro Ⅲ . いの e 〃 10 ″ / 怩 sch00 / 坦リ ' 〃“ア〃 d 匆わ . Compare: preferred when arrangements for the future have already been made. Ⅳ襯 have is used to talk about future obligation, but have 曾 0 り is future obligation: 襯ん住 , 0 り and 襯 Peo 〃厄″ 0 “Ⅲ滬催立滬市砒 the Ⅲ or な changing. but not usually with 〃 al ⅲ British English. page 345