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1. Practical English usage

241 1 2 3 have ( 4 ) : have (got) ー possession, relationships etc 241 have ( 4 ) : have (got) ー possession, relationships and Other states meanmgs We Often use 〃 tO talk about states: possession, relationships, illnesses, the characteristics Of people and things, and similar ideas. 〃リ e10 リ 4 〃ア brothers ors な The 2 襯 e イⅲな r わ 4 わ 4 イ co 雇 MY ′ gra 〃 d 襯 0 市市市 4 Ⅳ nice 〃催 so 〃〃 T 〃観田 e got Ⅲ 0 〃ゆ砒〃平〃 e 尾 Sometimes わ 4 simply expresses the fact Of being in a particular situation. She “ / 靨 e. 尹〃可 cl 襯 d 尾〃市な weekend. ーⅲた we at 肥 mice. short and long forms lnstead of the short forms lhave, 0 リ have etc, we can use longer forms made by adding go た The short question and negative forms have etc and ーわ 4 怩〃 0 ー etc are Often avoided (and are not normally used in American English); instead, we use longer forms with got or イ 0. G0t-forms are especially common in an informal style. l've got 4 new わの〃 d. (More natural than ー 4 4 new わの呶〃 d. ) ーーア 0 ″ rs な rgo ー 4 car.? OR Doesyoursister レ e car? (More natural than 〃ア 0 ″ r sister car?) ー“リ e 〃 'tg 坦″ r た s. (More natural than ー“れ 01 砿た & ) The schOOI イ 0 れ 0 ー az 肥 4 イ e 甲平 0 な s c ⅲ行 es. (More natural than The school れ可 adequate 平 or な c 〃ⅲ e & ) 4 got (details) NOte that 〃 4 レ e got means exactly the same as 〃召レ e in this case ー it is a present tense Of have, not the present perfect Ofget. Got-forms Of have are informal, and are most common in the present. DO iS not used in questions and negatives with go た 尸レ ego ー 4 new car. カ′襯 0 er ' $ got れ VO sisters. 〃“ 0 リ g 可 4 〃 ead c 〃 lt's 4 〃 / ce アわこななれ s れ 7g0 ー proper わ 4 市 room. got 4 〃〃〃 0 ⅲな〃 e 〃ロⅵ市 Mr カ e Ⅲな 4 ー〃 0 ' c ん c た . Got-forms Of have are not used in short answers or tags. Got-forms Of 〃レ e are less common in the past tense. 〃 za イア″立Ⅲに (NOT 4 み“ dg 評ア ... ) D 坦リ“ good “〃催 s Ⅲ〃 e 〃″ were 砒 school? GOtis not generally used with infinitives' participles or -ing forms 0f have : you cannot usually say have got 〃イ肥 or havinggot わ ro . GO ト infinitives are sometimes possible after modal verbs (). g. She 川一ー got new わの呶池〃の . page 230

2. Practical English usage

4 5 6 much and many 348 much/manywithout a noun can drop a noun after 〃 7 ″ C 〃 or ′れ 4 〃 , if the meaning iS clear. ) の″わレ e 〃 7e4 〃川 c ん ・ D 10 ″ア〃 d any 襯靨〃 roo 襯 ' ・Ⅳ川“れ y. NOte that ″Ⅲ c 〃 and 襯の are only used like this when a noun has been dropped. They are not used as the complements Of nouns: Other structures are used. Compare: There Ⅲ〃 7 襯〃 c ( 0 の . That's 0 〃 ( 0 の . B U T N 0 T - e 工・そ e S - 若 - ″を - (Because you couldn't say - 料肥ヂöod - 辞霍を・・襯 e ん : 0 ) Many is not usually used alone t0 mean ・ many people'. M “れ y 〃 eo 〃市加た it's ⅲれ e ra change. (NOT -4 “尋ⅲ、 .. ) not used in amrmative clauses ln an informal style, we use 襯リ c 〃 and 襯 4 〃 ! mostly in questions and negative clauses. They are unusual affrmative clauses except after SO, and 0 ; Other words and expressions are used. Compare: 0 Ⅲ much 〃 10 〃〃坦リ go 7 ' 怩 got p ルれ ' (NOT -- 実 - g - 襯〃ん一 ' ) He's go ロ 0 可襯 e 〃介〃 ds , わ砒 he イ oes 〃 7 know れ y Ⅲ 0 襯 e 〃 . (More natural than He's got 襯れ襯 e れ女〃ホ . ) There Ⅲ $ 0 襯 c な類 c 市百は 00 ん me 4 〃〃 0 ″ r gethome. ス〃イ市 e 尾 Ⅲ“ー可可わ ad driving 0 〃 the road. (More natural than... there Ⅲ“ c わ ad driving... ) 物リ make ね 0 many 襯なた es ーな 0 工平 e 〃ⅲ g 襯なん for れ〃厄 (More natural than... 襯れ spelling 襯なた es... ) Very ″ 7 ″ C 〃 iS common in affirmative clauses as an adverb, but not as a determiner. Compare: 〃 e イな襯“ c ん T 〃の坦″怩Ⅳ襯“ c ん There's w 0 ル lOt 0 工Ⅲ 4 r coming under the door. (N 0 T - ド e 卍 e 〃 c ん - 田襯剏 g... ) ln a formal style, 襯″ c 〃 and 襯〃ア are not SO unnatural in affrmative clauses. れ〃 been Ⅲな e 〃 4 わ OI な the causes 0 工Ⅲ肥襯〃 / 0 坦〃のル加 the 0 〃ⅲ〃 0 / 〃 ~ 〃ア eco 〃 0 襯なな , . お・ and 〃 g ( = ・ a long time') are aISO used mostly in questions and negative clauses. See 206 and 323. 〃 ~ C as adverb We can use 〃れイ C 〃 as an adverb. ーイ 0 が ra 怩 / 襯“市 e da, . イ″ C 〃 can come before some verbs expressing enJoyment, preference and similar ideas, especially ⅲ a formal style. We 襯 c prefer the co な the Ⅲ〃 . 〃襯“ c enjoyed 催 s Ⅲ i 市砿襯〃必 page 340

3. Practical English usage

2 3 4 5 (a) little and (a) few 322 ofafter ( の littleand (a)few We use ( の〃な厄 ofand ( のⅢ ofbefore a pronoun or determiner ( for example the, 襯必 e ー see 157 ). ( の〃な可市なな 0 リ etc ( のⅢ可を 0 リ / 市 e 襯 / 市 ese / 襯ⅲ e etc ) 〃な厄 / Ⅲ Of + determiner 十 noun Compare: Few 〃 eo 〃ル ca 〃 say 砒記Ⅲ〃 the なリ市 . Few 0 工 ca 〃市ロ怩Ⅲ 4 〃 the なリ市 . CO リれ〃なル w 加 CO 襯 d れげ“〃なル 0 工 0 “ r Ⅲⅲ 0 〃 afew 0 工市 e c れⅲⅲな class 〃た e 〃市 & use Of / れ There is a difference between 〃な厄 and 4 〃な厄 , and betweenfew and 4 Ⅲ . Without articles, 〃な厄 andfew usually have rather negative meanings. They may suggest ・ not as much / many as one would like', ・ not as much / many as expected', and similar ideas. TheaverageMP 〃〃な尾〃 0 Ⅲ er. Few 〃 eo 〃厄 ca 〃平 ea たル尾 / g 〃 language 〃 e ′女 c 〃必 A 〃な厄 and 、ルⅢ are more positive: their meaning is generally closer tO SO 襯 e. They can often suggest ideas like ・ better than nothing' or ・ more than expected'. Ⅳ 0 襯 d 坦″〃た e “〃なル so リ〃 YO リ do 〃 7 れ e go s わ 0 〃〃ⅲ & We've got w 〃 0 es の some 立 ea に Compare: Cactuses need 〃なルⅢ 4 r. (not much water) Give the roses 〃なルⅢ 4 r every d 召必 (not a IOt, but some) 〃な e 尾市類 c リ″ , andfew 〃 eo 〃 / e understand 市 e 襯 . His e 4 尾市類 c こ市 , わ砒 afew 〃 eo 〃厄Ⅲ滬 er 立の滬 e 襯 . Quite 4 Ⅲ (informal) means ・ a considerable number'. We've got 4 ⅲ“ w 介 ie 〃ホⅲ the レ〃 ge. formal and informal language 石な厄 andfew (with no article) are rather formal. ln an informal style (). g. ordinary conversation), we generally prefer 〃の襯リ c 〃 / 〃〃必 or Come 0 〃 . は ue 〃 4 レ e れ go 川 c 行襯 e ! 0 j' afew people 平た 4 尾 ig 〃 language 〃 e けケ . 〃なル andfew without nouns We can drop a noun and use 〃な厄 / Ⅲ alone, if the noun has already been ・ SO 襯 e 〃尾 so リ〃 7 ″立〃な〃厄 e. mentioned. page 315

4. Practical English usage

4 5 6 have ( 4 ) : have (got) ー possession, relationships etc 241 repetition and habit When we are talking about repeated states, got-forms of 〃 4 レ e are less often used; dO is normally used in questions and negatives. Compare: 尸リ e got 0 〃肥 . ー 0 尹 e 〃“ 0 〃 la e. 〃 10 リ got 行襯 e go ん 0 〃イ 0 れ市な weekend? DO 0 リ ever リ e 行襯 e go カ 0 れ d の滝 Sorry,I “れ g 可のⅣ beer. We dO 〃 ' れパリ襯ケ住わ e 邵ⅲ the house. progressive forms, weak forms and contractions Progressive forms Of 〃レ e are not used With these ・ state' meanings. ー“ (t) 4 〃 ea イ c 〃 e. (NOT 44 - 物“ⅵ〃 g 召 e44 e 〃の Contractions and weak forms (see 588 ) are used before go た ln British English, contractions are also possible before nouns with determiners like / れ , SO 〃 , 〃必〃 0 , e レ e り′ . 尸 got 〃 ro わ厄襯 . We've some 行 c た e なル r the opera, ア 0 リ ' 尾ⅲ尾立 e (GB) れ 0 e 化 (GB) She's every chance 可 go 襯 ed . (GB) British-American differences Traditionally, do-forms of have have been used in British English mostly to express habit or repetition. Compare (GB) : DO ア 0 リ 0 尹 e 〃 meetings? 〃ア 0 リ got 4 meeting イの ln American English, do-forms are not limited ⅲ this way. Compare (US): DO 10 リ 0 尹 e 〃 have 襯 ee 行〃 g DO ア 0 ″ meeting d ()R 〃坦リ go ー meeting ア ln modern British English (which is heavily influenced by American English), do-forms are common even When there iS no idea Of repetition. DO 坦リ time go the わ c なⅢ ee ん夜滬 (US/modern GB) ln British EngIish, short question and negative forms of have are possible, though these are often formal. They are not used in American English. Compare: 〃 0 〃の 7 〃〃 0 ⅲな〃 e 〃 (formal GB only) DO ア 0 ″の 7 4 〃〃 0 ⅲ加肥〃 (US/GB) Birmingham れ the charm 可物ⅸ or 石市〃わ″ rg ん (formal GB only) Birmingham do 〃 0 ー az 肥 the charm ... ()S / GB) Contracted short forms Of have are used only ⅲ British English. Compare: We've 4 襯襯ⅲ g 〃 0 ⅲ the 〃襯 ge. ()B only) We / We'vegota s Ⅲⅲ〃れⅲ g 〃 00 /... (US/GB) ln very informal American speech, people may drop ' (but not 勺 before g . 4 ' レの got 4 〃 ro わ厄襯 . Got- and do-forms may be mixed in American EngIish, especially when short answers, reply questions and tags follow got-forms. アリ ego ー 4 new 4 〃才襯夜ル ' ・ YO ″ a03 ' / dO 〃 7 市ⅲん we'vegotanychoice, イ 0 Ⅲ page 231

5. Practical English usage

329 1 2 3 330 1 a b d marry and divorce 329 marry and divorce get married/divorced When there is no Object, get 襯な d and get 加 0 尾 ed are more common than marry and 市尾 e in an informal style. ん襯″ andJoe got 襯住″ d week. リル andJoe married... is more formal.) ーⅥ〃尾坦″ go ⅲ g getmarried? T 〃 e 0 わⅲ尾 ge 市れ g 市Ⅷ尾 ed. ln a more formal style, marry and 市尾 e are preferred. A / 市 0 リ g she 〃 4 イ〃町〃 e 〃卲催川“な d. ス尹催市尾 e 怩Ⅲⅲ 4 〃〃 ea 市Ⅷ尾 ed. no preposition before object Before a direct object, 襯 al ・ and d 加 0 尾 e are used without prepositions. She married 4 わⅲ er. (N OT - S e - 襯 ed なル丑第“〃 4 9 Ⅳ襯坦リ marry 襯 ス〃イ尾Ⅲ ' Sgo ⅲ g 市Ⅷ尾 e Caro . get/be married ね We can also use get/be ma な d with an 0bject. She got married 〃邵襯襯 100 イ sweetheart. l've been married ア 0 ″ル r sixteen years 4 〃ィー立襯 d0 〃 7 リ〃 de 〃ア 0 乢 may and might ( 1 ) : introduction grammar M and 襯 / g are modal auxiliary verbs (see 344 ー 345 ). There is no -s in the third person singular. She 襯ア be e 尾 tomorrow. (NOT - S e - 襯“ッ .. ) ltmightrain 市な召 ernoo 〃 . Questions and negatives are made without dO. M ーゆ坦 ( NOT のひ“ .. ) We might れ可わ e home わル尾襯ⅲ g . After 襯 4 ア and 襯 / g / な we use the infinitive without Of Other verbs. 物リ川加 right. (NOT - 村 , tay - ね - 梔 - 再ル ) She might れ 0 ーれ一 come Ⅲ / 靨 . Progressive, perfect and passive infinitives are also possible (see 276 ). Ⅳわ〃 7 リ e co 襯 ' ・ He mightbe 0 加 g late. ' ・ she 市イ〃 7 ア〃 e ″ 0. ' ・ She may れ可“ reco 一 edyo リ . DO 坦リ〃ⅲ 7 た we mightbe askedfor 0 ″ r 0 〃ⅲ i0 〃 Ma. ア and 7 ⅲ g 厩 d0 not have infinitives or participles はひ -- 襯召ツⅲ & g dO not exist). When necessary, use Other words. She Ⅲ〃なね be “〃 0 ed 0 〃 e 〃 4 わの承 cco ″厩 . (N OT .. はひ - “ 0 〃 e ... ) page 322

6. Practical English usage

2 3 4 5 please and thank you 429 Please イ 0 iS a rather formal answer to a request for permission. の 0 0 リ襯ⅲイー 0 〃 e れ the window?' アル e イ 0. For more about requests, see 483. when 〃ル is not used We do not use 〃厄 e to ask people what they have said. 7 ' got わな可〃 eadac! . ' 7 begyour pardon?' We do not use please when we give things to people. ・ H レ e 0 リ g 〃 e 〃 1C0 襯 d ″ s ' ・阨 s , e 0 are. Please is not used as an answer to T / za 〃た坦リ (see below). “れた 0 〃 and “〃 T 〃 4 〃 is more informal than 〃 za 〃ん 0 リ . T 〃の 10 リ . (NOT - 4 サ・ひ ) T 〃〃たア 0 リ怩襯″ c ん Thanks 怩リ襯リ c ん月 za 〃 4 / の . (BUT NOT - ッひを / 併 9 Thank God / 廚 Fr 必 (NOT - ん 4 〃 - God... ) lndeed can be used to strengthen げ襯リ c ん T / 〃たリ襯″ c 〃加 ee イ . (B UT N 0T norma Ⅱ y 挈〃ナ o ⅲ deed = ) T / 〃た 0 リ r / T / 〃ル r can be followed by an -ing form. possessives are unnecessary and are not used. ・ T / za 〃た″ rco 襯加 g.. ・Ⅳ砒〃 . T / za 〃た坦″ r “ⅵれ g 襯 e. (N 0 T - 挈〃召丑たナドッ 0 “ド - 田襯剏 g , こ ... ) accep ting and refusing We often use T 〃の 7 たア 0 ″ / T わ 4 〃 ks like Yes, 〃厄 e , to accept offers. ・Ⅳ 0 襯 a10 リ〃た e some 〃砒 oe ' ・ T ん〃た 0 ' 0 Ⅲ〃 za 〃ア ' TO make it clear that one wishes to refuse something, it is normal to say Ⅳ 0 , 4 〃た坦リ /No, thanks. 〃 0 er ca た e? ' Ⅳ 0 , れた $. l've 〃ね 0 襯の already. NOte that Yes, 市〃 is not used to accept offers, but to confirm that things are all right. ・砒 10 ″ g 夜 zo ″ g 〃 0 e ' ・ Yes, 住れ ks. rep lies to thanks ln English, there is not an automatic answer to T 〃〃た 0 ″ ; British people, especially, d0 not usually answer when they are thanked for small things. If a reply is necessary, we can say Not 砒〃 (rather formal), 物リ ' 尾 welcome, DO 〃 7 襯 e 〃行 0 〃川 That's ( 4 リなの〃 right or That's OK (informal British). Compare: ・ CO リ 0 ″〃 s 市 e / 滝 ' ・ He 尾 0 リ尾 . ' ・月 za れた s. ' ()o answer) ・〃 e 尾 ' S10 リ r CO 召れ ' ・ T んれた & ' ()o answer) ・ T れ $ 0 襯“ c ル r わ 0 たⅲ g after the cl ⅲ市 e 〃 . ' ・ T ん砒 ' $ “〃 g れスれⅲ〃 e. ' (answer necessary) For more about the language ofcommon social situations, see 520. page 439

7. Practical English usage

3 4 5 6 352 1 must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) to 352 negatives: prohibitions British people can use 〃Ⅲ立〃 / 襯加 7 to say that things should not be done, or tell people not to do things. Ca 〃 7 is also possible, and is normal in American English. The go ″肥厩尾ケ襯加 't/c 〃 e は〃 eo 〃厄Ⅲ 0 〃 r 物リ加 ' ″ ca 〃 0 〃 e 〃な〃 4 尾 el ″厩〃 ChristmasDay. NOte that 襯リ立れ 0 ー / 襯リ s 加 7 is not used to say that things are unnecessary. This idea is expressed by 0 〃 0 肥 e イ or do 〃〃 4 . YO リ don'tneed ね g レな go Sco 〃 at . ln British EngIish, we can give permission not to do things with need 〃 . YO リ needn't Ⅲ or た襯 orro Ⅲ 0 リ dO 〃 7 Ⅲ 4 ′な . ()S 物″ do れ“知Ⅲ 0 ... ) past necessity and obligation Mustis not normally used tO talk about past obligation (except in indirect speech ー see below). This is because 襯ⅱ s used mainly for giving orders and advice and for making recommendations, and one cannot dO these things in the past. 〃 4 イ is used t0 talk about ・ outside' obligation in the past. / “イ cycle 市尾 e miles school Ⅲ〃夜Ⅲ c 雇 For 襯ー + perfect infinitive expressing conclusions about the past, see 350.4. indirect sp eech れィ立 can be used (especially in British English) after a past reporting verb as if it were a past tense. The doctor 覊市 4 け〃 smoking. Obligation can also be reported with 〃 ad and Ⅲ 0 リ have . The イ oc の r 市砒〃 za イ / 0 ““ね立 0 〃砌 10 たⅲ g. 襯ー and $ 0 Should can be used as a weaker form of 襯靨れ Compare: T 〃砒 ca 甲襯ー be c 厄 4 〃 ed. ( = れな 4 伝 0 ルケ necessary.) T 〃砒 ca 甲可 0 “ be cleaned. ( = れⅢ 0 リ be g00 イ . ) For more about the difference between ″Ⅲ立 and 10 襯 4 see 496. For more information about 〃 4 曾 0 り , see 243 ; for more about the difference between 襯″立 and / , see 352. must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) to There are some differences between 襯″立 and 〃レ e . concluding that something is certain BOth 襯リ立 and 〃 (t) can be used tO express the conclusion that something iS certain. Must iS unusual in this sense in American English, especially in speech. 〃宅 (t) used t0 be unusualin British English in page 344

8. Practical English usage

2 3 4 250 251 1 home 251 ln other cases we usually prefer g ん イ 0 Ⅲな窺わⅢな〃肥 highest mo ″〃 ta ⅲⅲ Europe. T ega e が Sg のⅣ g Ⅲな . measurements ln measurements, we use 〃 for people, but we 0ften use g 〃 for things. Compare: T 〃砒 tree な 4 わ 0 砒 eightyfeet g / 〃 . distance above the ground We use g ん not 〃 , to talk about distance above the ground. A child standing on a chair may be g わ催 than her mother, although she is probably not 〃 er,. T わ砒 e 既な 0 g r me 尾 ac ん The clo リホ尾 g んイ必 parts ofthe body Parts of the body can be long, but not 〃 . ス I わ got われィリ 0 れ g legs. (N OT ... - 〃ノ & ) Forbig, great and large, see 105. holiday and holidays ln British English, the plural 〃 0 〃 da is often used for the ・ big holiday' of the year. ln 0ther cases we normally use the singular 〃 0 ″ da. 必 Compare: ー肥尾℃坦″ go ⅲ g r 坦″ rs Ⅲれ襯邵 0 〃イれ y ( s. 尸 Wegetfive d ' Christmas 0 〃 d の′市な . Ⅳ e 灯 M のアな〃リわ〃 c 0 〃 d れ必 The singular is used ⅲ the British expression 0 れ / 〃 da. ア (note the preposition). われ M r 液〃れ e 0 〃 0 〃 d y ⅲⅣ or Ⅲ 4 必 (NOT . .- 併 bl わ田面 & .. ) Americans normally use the word レ c 行 0 〃 . ()n British English, レ 4C4 行 0 れ is mainly used for the periods when universities are not teaching. ) 〃 0 〃 a41 is used in American English for a day 0f publicly observed celebration (such as Thanksgiving) , whether or not people work on it. home articles and prepositions NO article iS used in the expression 4 ー〃 0 襯 e (meaning ・ in one's own place'). page 237 れ〃ⅲた I'II go 0 襯 e. (NOT ... ・ - 恠物ひ襯の Home (without ) can be used as an adverb referring tO direction. ムのⅣわ 0 イア 0 Atis often dropped, especially in American English. ム 4 〃わ od アー 0 襯〆 (N OT . . 観 e - 物 0 襯 )

9. Practical English usage

329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 marry and divorce may and might ( 1 ) : may and might ( 2 ) : possibility may and might ( 3 ) : may and might ( 4 ) : and hopes may and might ( 5 ) : may/might ... but may and might ( 6 ) : may/might as well may and might ( 7 ) : might may in wishes perm1SSlon intro duction measurements.• marked and means mean meals maybe and perhaps criticisms) (requests, suggestions and must ( 1 ) : intro duction much an d many most more modal auxiliaryverbs introduction modal auxiliary verbs: m1SS mind unmarke d forms : meamngs nationalities, countries and names 田 ld titles must ( 4 ) : must and have (got) to must ( 3 ) : necessity and obligation something iS certain must ( 2 ) : concluding that sentences negative structures ( 5 ) : ambiguous negatives negative structures ( 4 ) : questions negative structures ( 3 ) : negation negative structures ( 2 ) : transferred negative structures ( 1 ) : basic rules need nearest and next near (to) reglons double negative newspaper headlines neither ... nor neither, nor ... neither (Of) : determiner 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 408 407 406 405 404 403 402 401 400 399 398 397 396 List Of entries next and the next no and none no/none and not a/any no doubt no matter no more, not any more, no longer, not any longer no one and none non-assertive words not and no not only noun complementation noun modifiers nouns in groups ( 1 ) : intro ductiO n and general rules nouns ⅲ groups ( 2 ) : classifying expresslons nouns in groups ( 3 ) : the 's s tru cture and the Of structure nouns ⅲ groups ( 4 ) : special cases now (that) nowadays numbers Of course often older English verb forms once (adverb) once (conjunction) one: substitute word one, you and they: indefinite personal pronouns one Of. only (focusing adverb) open P age passives ( 2 ) : agent verb forms passives (l) : passive structures and participles ( 4 ) : clauses participles ( 3 ) : details participles ( 2 ) : active and passive ( 1 ) : introduction participles (-ing and -ed forms) part paragraphs ()Wn out Of ought opposite: position opportunity and possibility

10. Practical English usage

4 5 6 7 verb complementation: what can follow a verb? 579 Marriage 〃尾記 changed 〃肱 She's changed lotsince she got married. We're 〃ⅲ ga / 可可 co 〃池 s 可ア 0 リ r わ 00 ん . 物リ r わ 00 ん ' S selling Ⅲ e 〃 . For verb structures used as obj ects, see paragraphs 7 ー 9 b elow. For structures with object complements, see paragraph 10 below. verbs with prepositions and particles Many verbs need prepositions before their objects. ルり尾 10 リ loo た加 g “ー me 〃た e 市砒 (NOT 4 召紹ナ例目 00 た加 g ・合 l'd 〃ん e ″〃知な . (NOT ... - ね 4 〃イん ) e 礰 4 わ 0 “ー坦Ⅲ・〃 / のⅣ (NOT 主イ襯たツ 0 “ドア The preposition is dropped when there is no object. 00 ん ! (N 0 T 00 た丑 鷲 ) Other verbs are used with adverb particles. Some of these combinations are copular verbs For information about the position ofplace and other adverbials, see 23. S 〃 eg 可 0 ガ e わ“ s. (BUT NOT Shegot;) e 〃 $ 加 Yo . (BUT NOT - 孖 e - & ) S01 e verbs are incomplete without an expression Of place. 〃 e climbing 川例 m ⅲ s. (NOT 4- 〃た e - cl 剏 g ・例ト 0 ′ ) A few verbs can be used with direct objects referring to place. DO 〃 7 Ⅲた 0 〃 the 住 . (NOT の併行を礰 - e-gra 9 She 4 な加 ed れ e s 0 れ立ⅲ g . (N OT - - “仔加 ed - e - 4 0 ル .. ) Usually, a preposition is necessary before an expression of place. complements of place For more about two-part verbs like these, see 582. れ ' S ⅲれ e g 可〃 . Ⅳé'l リ za 〃“ー 0 0 リ r レなな Sco 〃 at . transitive; others are intransitive. an expression which describes the subject. These are called ・ copular verbs'. Some verbs are followed not by an object, but by a subject complement ー For details, see 147. Your r00 ′れな mess. The 〃 e な are 〃 $ i . 〃 za ロ 00h nice. / な“ co 川可 e i 市 0 れ verb 十 verb structures: auxiliaries Many verbs can be followed by forms of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs are used with Other verbs tO make questions and negatives, progressive forms, perfect These are made / 〃 France. ー肥尾住ア 0 リわ ee れ 3 な raining? れ do 〃 7 襯な er. D010 ″ W 住れ一 SO 襯 e forms, and passives. For details, see 84. page 607