142 1 2 3 conjunctions(l) : general points 142 conjunctions ( 1 ) : general points What are conjunctions? Conjunctions are words that jOin clauses intO sentences. C LA U S E CONJUNCTION C LA U S E ー was extremely tired. beca use e 〃 0 bed r ケ S E N T E N C E Conjunctions not onlyjoin clauses together; they also show how the meanings Of the tWO clauses are related. We わ ro リ g 市 e od 住れ d 市〃〃〃 ed the drink. (addition) She was 〃 00r わー she Ⅲ〃 0 〃 e 立 . (contrast) We ca れ go swimming, 0 ロ怩 co 襯イ s アわ e 尾 . (alternative) 2e0 〃厄 d な〃んわ because she Ⅲ so rude. (cause) I'II 〃〃 0 〃 e10 ″“市 e れ一 ar ⅲノ e. (time) two kinds スれ必な and or are often called ・ co-ordinating conjunctions'. They join pmrs of clauses that are grammatically independent of each other. Other conjunctions, like わ e e , Ⅲ〃 e 〃 , 市砒 or Ⅲ c ん are called ・ subordinating conjunctions'. A subordinating conjunction together with its following clause acts like a part of the other clause. Compare: I'II 〃〃 0 れ e 坦リん e れ一“な加 e. I'II 〃〃 0 〃 e 0 ″ 0 な 0 ( い〃肥〃ー ar 怩 is similar tO 襯 orro Ⅲー it acts like an adverb in the clause I'II 〃〃 0 れ e 坦リ . ) He 〃肥住ー he loved e. 〃 e 〃花〃 e. ( 市砒 he loved me is similar to lie ー it acts like the object ⅲ the clause He me... ) lt's 4 4 リ e 立〃なん〃 0 わ 0 イ c 〃 answer. lt's 〃れ 4 れ $ wera わ 4 リ e 立〃 . (which 〃 0 わ 0 イア ca 〃 answer is similar tO リ〃〃 s Ⅲ era わ厄ー it acts like an adjective in the clause lt's 4 リ es 行 0 〃 . ) Some conjunctions are Of tW() words. ー立の′ ed 4 〃 e 工な 4 ⅲ g / な 0 住ー 1C0 ″ e ス〃〃 . Let me た〃 0 Ⅲ the 0 川 e 〃ーー一ア 0 ″ arrive. ln grammars, clauses that fOllOW subordinating conjunctions are called ・ subordinate clauses' or ・ dependent clauses'. position Of subordinate clauses Adverbial subordinating conjunctions and their clauses can usually go either 立 / me ん〃 0 Ⅲ 0 “ need ん e ゆ . ア 0 “ need e ゆ , ノロ me た〃 0 Ⅲ . first or last in a sentence (depending on what is to be emphasised). page 129
3 558 559 1 2 thankful and grateful 558 $ - and than-clauses with missing subject or Object As and 市れ can introduce clauses in which there is no subject or Object pronoun (rather as ifas and 市 4 〃 were relative pronouns). Clauses with no subject pronoun are mainly used in a formal style. Their marriage Ⅲ立 or ″Ⅳんイ been 〃 e け e thankful and grateful For the pronunciation Of 〃Ⅲ川 and 〃ら see 588. For that-clauses, see 559. For subject and object pronouns after 〃〃 , see 138.8. (N o T … - ーー矚 ) She gets わ催襯 e 砒介 0 襯 the 襯 e わ″〃催 $ lgo . (N 0 T … - 襯 0 賠。語 444 物召 40 e 紹 4- ) T 〃厩〃尾住〃 lhad ordered. Do が目 ose 0 リ r 〃 s 〃 0 川ー did I ー ear. (NOT He Ⅲ 0 な s 〃 10 尾ーんれ good 工 br i . ()O T ... - - 召 ee を - 出 ee Anne'sgoing t0j0in us, was agreed ee た . page 586 The main ⅲ g な 4 ー 0 “ ' “〃〃 y. lt can be the complement. 料 ta e $ 0 “ rg 可 me $ 0 ⅵ c Ⅲ ra 市 4 oc た . the subject. That-clauses can have various functions in sentences. A that-clause can be that-clauses in sentences become the object 0f the verb in the larger sentence. ) ーリ〃 d 夜・立 00a ーー he was i 〃〃 oce 〃た (The clause he was / 〃〃 OC 夜な has ーリ〃 der 立 00 畆 He was / な〃 oce 〃た (tWO separate sentences) it shows that a declarative clause forms part Of a larger sentence. Compare: T 〃ー is a conjunction with little real meaning. lt is simply a connector ー ーー as a connector that-clauses Ⅳ〃ユ初れた〃市砒 ' S 0 怩 r. Wefeel 怩“れ〃市砒 e 市 d 〃 7 〃 lar Ⅳ襯尹〃 . l'm “〃〃砒 we got 〃 0 襯 e わ q 尾 the or 襯立 d. expenence. avoided a danger 0f some kind, or at having come through an unpleasant Thankfulis used especially to talk about people's feelings of relief at having She Ⅲ〃 7 わな尹〃襯 e ルロ℃〃 r ⅲ g 〃催 car. 乃れ“〃 r 〃坦″ r わ e ゆ . (NOT 挈襯 - 召 e げ - 砒尹 .. ) kindness, favours etC. Gra 尹 is the normal word used t0 talk about people's reactions t0
6 7 8 474 1 relatives ( 2 ) : identifying and non-identifying clauses 474 I' 怩Ⅲ the car た & 物リ were / 00 たⅲ g ル r e . I' Ⅲ滬 the car た s c 坦リ were ん 0 たⅲ g r. whose ↓ 4 〃 ~ ose iS possessive relative word, as a determiner before nouns. lt replaces 〃な〃肥 r 〃な . For more details, see 475. ー saw 4 girl ん 0 $ e 炉 came dO Ⅲ〃 her Ⅲなれ (N 0 T ... e 物物 4 炉℃“襯 e - do ル .. ) c referring to a whole clause ↓ c 〃 can refer not only to a noun, but also to the whole of a previous clause. NOte that Ⅲ〃 4 市ー and 〃 0 Ⅲ cannot be used in this way. He got 襯 4 な d ga ⅲ 4 ア ea 砒 er. , c s リ甲 r な e イ卲 e わ od 必 (NOT ... , ィ / 磁仔世な ed e げ 4 She c 厄イ介 0 襯ん 0 〃イ 0 れ GIasgow, c な〃 r goodfor Ⅲ 0 襯〃可 75. (NOT - s サ 4... , な世 e g 4... ) れ 4 ⅵ襯〃 ress the Ⅲ 4 ア加 c she did な separating a noun 0n1 its relative pronoun 1 rang リ〃グ r $ Spencer, 0 did 0 リ r accounts. (NOT The な she なル r Ⅲ 4 Ⅲⅲ尾立ⅲ g. Relative pronouns usually follow their nouns directly. (NOT page 489 about a person or thing that is already identified. ()n grammars, these are Other relative clauses do not identify or classify; they simply tell us more 〃 al ア 0 ″ gotsomething 市“ー i 〃 g 可ⅲた 0 ー 0 工 carpet? Peo 〃 0 p e 尾な e 〃 longer. Paris な 4 city l've ー w 住 $ w れ〃 d ″なな ム砒坦Ⅲ・ car “ $ parked 0 “な〆 What's the 〃襯 e 0 工市 e 〃襯れ w 0 カー c 襯 e 加 called ・ identifying', ・ defining' or ・ restrictive' relative clauses. ) thing, or which kind ofperson or thing, is meant. ()n grammars, these are Some relative clauses identify or classify nouns: they tell us which person or tWO kinds Of relative clause non-identifying clauses relatives ( 2 ) : identifying and For other ways ofusing question-word clauses, see 460.5. For more about relative clauses pronouns, the following sections. For the use of Ⅲ〃ー and 〃 0 Ⅲ in nominal relative clauses, see 476. ー rang ″〃 Mrs Spencer, the Ma れれ g 催 ' $ secretary, who 市イ 0 リ r cco ″〃な . relative pronoun. However, a descriptive phrase sometimes separate a from itS
2 3 4 relatives ( 2 ) : identifying and non-identifying clauses 474 called ・ non-identifying', ・ non-defining or non-restrictive' relative clauses. ) T 〃なな Ms oge w 0 ' $ 加ⅲ g e r 〃 " 肥 week. 加 7908 お 0 怩 / 0 〃〃な Mo / Tcar, which $ 0 r $ 500. There are several grammatical differences between the two kinds of relative clause. There are alSO stylistic differences: non-identifying clauses are generally more formal, and are less frequent in informal speech. pronunciation and punctuation ldentifying relative clauses usually follow immediately after the nouns that they modify, without a break: they are not separated by pauses or intonation movements in speech, or by commas in writing. (ThiS iS because the noun would be incomplete without the relative clause, and the sentence would make no sense or have a different meaning. ) Non-identifying clauses are normally separated by pauses and / or intonation breaks and commas. Compare: The Ⅲ 0 襯 4 〃 w 0 does 襯ア加わ襯 0 イの zo わ尾 ' S. Doro 市必 w 0 does my hair, 〃 moved another 〃尾催 ' & She 襯 4 な d 4 ma 〃ー一 she met 0 れわー . She 〃 la な d 4 ⅲ ceyo ″〃 g at ℃け介 0 襯 BeIfast, 0 she 襯可 0 れわ & N0te how the identifying clauses cannot easily be left out. The Ⅲ 0 襯〃〃 as 襯 0 レ ed 〃 0 市 er わイ尾 sser ' S. (Which woman?) She 襯 4 な d 4 〃 za 〃 . ( ! ) When a non-identifying clause does not come at the end of a sentence, two commas are necessary. Doro 必 w 0 does 川アらわ襯 0 レ . (N o T - Do 田歩田・イ oe & - 襯みド物ー襯 ed 、 .. ) use of ー T 〃 4 ー iS common as a relative pronoun in identifying clauses. lt can refer tO things, and in an informal style t0 people. ln non-identifying clauses, 砒 is 4 〃“ 0 〃 ... thatetc (N 0 T - & - な - Ⅳ召 o 襯 / -- 曲“ e 〃 & -4 昭一行 e ) T 〃なな Na のⅲ , 0 sells the 行 c ん e な . ル肥尾 ' S the girl “ el な the 行 c た e な o R ... w 0 広 ... ) (NOT 〃 e 厩襯・ T 加 0 財 4 〃 and the Sea', which な尾襯ケ read. 坦リ g の 4 わ 00 た ' S 尾 read? ()R ... which な ... ) unusual. Compare: page 490 lt's the わ e ア / 襯 ever been made わ 0 madness. lhope the little 市“ ' done 〃 been 尹〃 . The 0 れ thing “ na な催 s なねア〃 d 0 ″ r Ⅲ召ア〃 0 襯 e. (More natural than... のリⅲ g c ... ) 〃怩坦″ g Ⅳ加 g “ー belongs 襯 ムな“〃 ' S 厄尹 (More natural than... “〃 which な尹 〃火市ⅲ , 〃 0 ( 市ⅲ g) , 〃 0 〃 e , 〃な / e , Ⅲ , 襯″ , 0 〃ケ , and after superlatives. T 〃砒 is especially common after quantifiers like 4 〃 , 卲 e ( ⅲ , so 襯可市ⅲ ,
2 3 4 5 relatives (l) : relative clauses and pronouns (introduction) 473 relative pronouns When Ⅲ〃 0 , Ⅲ〃 0 襯 etc are used tO introduce relative clauses, they are called ・ relative pronouns'. WhO, Ⅲ〃 / c and 市ー can be the subjects ofverbs in relative clauses. WhO refers tO people and Ⅲ〃 / c 〃 tO things; 市ー can refer tO both people and things. What's the 〃襯 e 0 工市 e 〃襯〃 w 0 ノリ立 c 襯 e 滝 lt's 4 わ 00 た c Ⅲ襯ⅲ尾立 c 尾〃可〃 ages. (N OT .. 田一わん 0 、 .. ) The 〃 eo 〃厄可〃〃 e door ん〃 having ″ - ⅲ g 厄〃 ar 行 e & These 4 尾 the た s “ー 0 〃 e 〃市 e 介のなの滬わ c た door. Who, Ⅲ〃 0 襯 , Ⅲ c 〃 and that can also be used as the objects ofverbs in relative clauses. 0 is informal as an object; in a more formal style, Ⅲ〃 0 襯 is used, especially ⅲ certain kinds 0f relative clause (for details, see 474 ). He's married 襯 e わ 0d. ア w 0 ー尾記ケ d0 れ 7 〃 . (informal) He 〃〃 la な so 襯 e わ od ア 0 襯・ ea 〃ア d0 〃〃た e. (formal) lgave 襯〃レ e10 〃 e , which he 〃ⅲ〃な〃 oc た砒 0 〃 ce. 〃 e 尾 4 尾 the 〃 4 〃 e 一 10 ″ were / 00 たⅲ g r. relative when, where and y ー 7 ~ e 〃 and Ⅲ〃 e 尾 can introduce relative clauses after nouns referring tO time and place. They are used in the same way as preposition + which. I'II neverforget e イれ y e れ一ア r 立襯ア 0 リ . . the d 0 which ... ) DO リ knowa $ op w e ー〃ア′覊〃 da な ↓〃 ) , iS in a similar way after reaso れ . DO 0 リん〃 0 Ⅲ the re 0 れ w ア she doesn't 〃ん e 襯 . the 尾 0 れ r c ... ) leaving out Object pronouns ln some kinds 0f relative clause (see 474 ) , Object pronouns can be left out. She's so 襯 e わ 0 礪ー really ca がれ d. ( = .. 襯 e わ 0 住た .. ) . the 〃 4 〃 e 住た .. ) 〃 e 尾 4 尾 the 〃 4 〃 e 0 “ were 0 た加 g 工 0 れ ( = double use Of relative pronouns Relative pronouns have a double use: they act as subjects or objects inside relative clauses, and at the same time they connect relative clauses tO nouns or pronouns in Other clauses ー rather like conjunctions. AS subjects or objects they replace words like she or 襯 : one subject or object ⅲ a relative clause iS enough. Compare: fle'sgota 〃 e Ⅲ g な / - 介〃 She works ⅲ 4 garage. He'sgota 〃 e Ⅲ g 炉 / - 介〃 d 0 works ⅲ agarage ・ (N 0 T ... - 肥た & - ⅲ - 召 - g 保 = ) T 〃なな MrRogers. 物″襯 i 襯立 year. T 〃なな介 oge 市 0 襯ア 0 ″襯ア ear. Here's 4 〃な厄れ襯 / g / な / 〃 re 10 ″ . Here's 4 〃 ar 行 c 厄 which 襯皙 / な / 〃 r ーア 0 ″ . (N 0 T ... - 〃んな - 襯・屏 - / 厩 e 坦 ) page 488
4 5 participles ( 4 ) : clauses 406 conjunction is needed t0 signal it. ) Adverbial participle clauses are usually rather formal. Used economically, 0 〃 e 行〃Ⅲ襯立島ⅳ weeks. ( = 明なな e 心 .. ) 〃“ⅵれ g 工“〃 e 襯襯 e 市 c “襯 $ , れ 00 たリ〃 acl ⅲ lg.. ( = As 〃イ〃 ... ) “市〃 g down my newspaper,l walked 0 怩 r t0 the Ⅲⅲ d0 Ⅲ . ( = AfterIhad 〃 do Ⅲ〃″Ⅳ〃 e Ⅲ平 4 〃夜・ れ rainedfor two weeks 0 〃 end, co 川〃川加ⅲ go r 0 〃イれ必 . so 可な co 襯〃厄ケ ruined 0 ″ r わ 0 〃 da 必 ) page 406 〃“れホ e g ん the dancers c / 尾 the g 厄 . ス〃な厄 g 炉 / Ⅲた〃新催 0 〃 draggingbehind 〃催 0 〃 the 〃怩襯 e 厩 . A 〃 the 川 0 れ“ⅵれ g been 平例鵬 we 立イ / 00 たⅲ g ル r Ⅲ 0 ⅸ . Ⅳ 0 わ od ⅵ″ g の〃 10 尾必 the meeting was c / 0 d. rather formal style. A participle clause can have its own subject. This happens most Often in a participle clauses with their own subjects Ta 黼れ g e 市加 g 加知 co れ s era 0 瑪 0 リ g / な get の 10 chance. S “〃〃 0 $ 加 g 市 e 尾Ⅲ 4 ・ , Ⅲ〃砒Ⅲ 0 襯 yo d0? CO 催ⅲ g e Ⅳⅲ g , なⅢ〃 74 わ召イ / 〃イ召必 カ祠れ g 介 0 襯 / ホ〃尾 s ⅵ 0 〃 , he's ⅲ 4 わイ襯 00a. Broadlyspeaking, dogs 尾襯 0 尾〃〃〃 cats. Generally speaking, e 〃 ca 〃 r ″〃工立 er 4 〃Ⅲ 0 襯 e 〃 . speaker's attitude. Examples: ・ Misrelated participles' are normal in some expressions referring tO the 〃“ⅵ〃 g 0 〃な厄襯 e , e Ⅲ〃の襯リ〃け could do. お ei 〃 g おれ c ん it's surprising thatshe's such 4 な / わ厄 C00 た . e 尾 as a subject. seem quite natural, particularly when the main clause has preparatory ″ or However, sentences With ・ misrelated participles' are common and Often of the window. ) 0 工襯 0 ″〃 ta ⅲ s. (This could sound as if the mountains were looking out ん 00 た加 g out 可市 e window 可 0 Ⅲ・〃の e / room, 市 e 尾ⅢⅢ 0 〃 de ィ / range be considered incorrect by many people. misrelated participle' (also called 'hanging' or ・ dangling' participle) , would has a different subject from the main clause. The following sentence, with its lt iS Often considered a mistake tO make sentences in which an adverb clause cl 襯 d 尾〃〃 ge . いカ′Ⅲ旅 is the subject of 〃ⅲⅲ g. ) My wife hada / 0 〃 g / たⅢ / S 召〃必 p 加ⅲ g Ⅲ娵 e 市 d 〃 7 Ⅲのな the subject Of the main clause in a sentence. Normally the subject of an adverbial participle clause is the same as the subjects;misrelated participles Knowing her 哲ⅣⅢ e 〃ユ尾襯な ed something Ⅲ wrong. Ⅳ 0 な加 g co 〃行〃″ e 〃 studies,l decided become 市・ e de 豆 g 〃催 . Being Ⅲわ t0 / 肥ゆⅲのⅣ 0 Ⅲは ga 怩わ催 so 襯 e 襯 0 れ . the participle clause usually expresses reason or cause. which are not normally used in progressive tenses (see 451 ). ln these cases, NOte that -ing clauses can be made with verbs like be, 〃 at ℃ , Ⅲな〃 and た〃 0 Ⅲ ,
472 1 2 3 473 1 relatives (1): relative clauses and pronouns (introduction) 473 reinforcement tags repeated subject and auxiliary verb ln informal spoken English (especially British English), a sentence sometimes ends with a ・ tag' which repeats the subject and auxiliary verb. YO リ ' gone mad, 0 リ e. l'm gettingfed リ〃は“ . If the main clause has no auxiliary verb, do is used ⅲ the tag. He 〃んわな beer, he do . use One reason for using a reinforcement tag is simply tO emphasise the idea of the main clause by repeating it. YO リ ' 尾尾〃〃 yc 厄 r , 0 are. A tag can alSO move the subject tO the end Ofthe sentence, SO that the verb comes earlier and gets more immediate attention. (This is called ・ fronting'; for details, see 217. ) Getting ⅲ〃リⅢ 4 必 0 “ are. Likes な beer, 〃イ 0 . lt is possible t0 ・ announce' the subject with a pronoun, and put the んⅡ subject in a tag. He 〃〃 7 chance, Fred がれ She 尾ケ got 0 〃襯ア nerves, S. ル市 d. subject-only tags lt is possible t0 have reinforcement tags without verbs. EIIipsis (see 183 ) Of the subject and verb is possible. ( 物リ ' r の〃レⅲ g ⅲ the clo ″ホ , 0 “ lot. ( T わ ' r の怩げ〃 0 e , 0 “ rc re ル Pronouns are not usually used alone in tags, except for reflexives. DO 〃 7 市ⅲた襯リ c 可市 e 〃 ar 午襯 e For similar structures, see 465-466 (question tags), 463 (reply questions) and 493 (short answers). relatives ( 1 ) : relative clauses and pronouns (introduction) relative clauses Clauses beginning with question words (). g. who, Ⅲ c んⅢ〃の are often used tO modify nouns and some pronouns ー tO identify people and things, or Here's the わ 00 んー坦″ were / 00 たⅲ g ルに Relative clauses can also be introduced by 〃 la た 〃 e ' Sg 4 匆わⅲ 4 〃 e Ⅲア r 襯 , where d0 れ wo $ c れ g 0 There's 4 programme 0 〃ⅲ g 厄 c 0 “川 ig ロ e. Those w 0 “〃可可 re 催 ed 0 襯 ddo so 砒 0 〃 ce. 〃怩ア 0 ″ ever 平 0 ん e 〃 the 〃 eo 〃 / e u,' 0 〃れ e イ 00 'relative clauses . tO give more information about them. Clauses used like this are called page 487
440 1 2 3 prepositions ( 5 ) : at the ends ofclauses 440 prepositions ( 5 ) : at the ends 0f clauses introduction A preposition Often connects tWO things: ( 1 ) a noun, adjective or verb that comes before it, and ( 2 ) a prepositional object' ー a noun phrase or pronoun that comes after the preposition. T 〃なな召〃 re $ e れ一工 br 0 物れ尾ケれア with e. He's ん 0 黼れ ga ー催 . ln some structures we may put the prepositional Object at or near the beginning 0f a clause. ln this case, the preposition does not always go with it ー it may stay together with ・ its' verb, adjective or noun at the end Of the clause. This happens especially in four cases: wh-questions: 怖の 0 ' S the 〃 re $ e 〃ーエ 0r3 relative structures: れ ' SJoe 市ー I' 襯尾 4 / を 4 れ部ア with. passives: She 〃た be looked “れ infinitive structures: The レ〃 ge な〃 / easa 〃一知〃レ e in. wh-questions When a question word is the object of a preposition, the preposition most Often comes at the end Of the clause, especially in informal usage. Who's the 〃尾 s 夜な工 0 (For w 0 襯な the 〃尾 se 〃 is extremely formal. ) ー za ー尾坦″ / 00 んⅲ g “れ 0 市 d 坦リ go with? れ催 e 市イ e わ″な介 0 襯ー仍 c ア / g な市 ege 〃 era レ ra 怩〃ⅲ go れ What たⅲイ可ア / 襯 s at ℃ 10 ″ interested ⅲ This also happens in indirect wh-questions, and in what-clauses which are not questions. Te 〃 me ーア 0 ″ ' 尾Ⅲ 0 なイ“わ 0 “れ What 4 / 可な 0 リわ厄 l'm ⅲ ! Some questions consist simply Of question word + preposition. What i 市ー to 工 0 However, thiS structure iS unusual When there iS With question word. Ⅳ襯 7 what 襯 0 れ (NOT ー WJ を襯 0 〃 - 肥襯 ) For more information about question structures, see 461 ー 466. relative clauses When a relative pronoun is the object of a preposition, the preposition also often goes at the end 0f the clause, especially ⅲ informal usage. T 〃なな the house ( “れ 0 ″“わ 0 . (Less formal than... “わ例な w れ 0 坦リ . ) 物″尾襯 e 襯わ er the わ ( の 7 Ⅲ go ⅲ go with? She's the 0 〃ケⅢ 0 〃〃 ( の l've e 怩ロ・ e しれⅲレ e with. That's w “切介ⅲ d 0 工 Because Ⅲ〃 0 ′れ iS tlntlSUal in an informal style, it iS very rare in clauses that For more information about relatives, see 473 ー 477. end with prepositions (see 474.7 ). page 453
4 5 6 conjunctions (l) : general points ー 42 A な 0 “ g the bicycle was 〃 e 加 e , she decided わ″な She decided Ⅳ the bicycle 0 g な was 〃 e れ $ 加 e. ー VI ルれをⅵれ g 4 $ 0 e らな〃〃〃 0 れ e ア 00r. な〃〃〃 0 〃 e ア 00r ルー was “ⅵれ g $ ow 催 . Because she 住知 0 れ g り′ $ 〃 e 住んス〃〃〃 0 市ⅲ g. スⅢい 4 〃 0 ⅲ & because she 観知 0 〃れ g り′ね $ 〃 e 住 punctuation Commas are Often used tO separate longer or more complicated clauses. Shorter pairs Of clauses Often connected without commas. Compare: ー came 〃 0 襯 e 〃 d the Others Ⅲ e ′な da 〃朝〃 & ー decided come 〃 0 襯 e earlier ロわ ad 〃〃〃 ed , 〃イ the others 平 e 厩 the evening ー the ca / d な CO. When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, it is more often separated by a comma, even if it iS short. Compare.• CO ′れ e / 〃 andsee IIS 工 0 arepassing.. For more information about punctuation, see 455. For punctuation in relative clauses, see 474. leaving words out Words for repeated ideas can often be left out in the second of two co- ordinate clauses (see 182 for details), but not normally in a subordinate clause. Compare: She Ⅲ尾 ed, and 市市 know Ⅲ砒イ 0. ( = and she 市市 know Ⅲ〃砒 t0 d0.) She Ⅲ de 〃尾 ed, because she 市市た〃 0 ⅢⅢ〃砒 do. (NOT - ・ S イ e 世わ e 田 e - 襯 4 〃与 - ん〃ひ雄 ... ) However, after Ⅲわ e 〃 , Ⅲ〃〃 e , リ厩〃 , once, ″ e and ( り市 0 ″ g 〃 , a pronoun subject and the verb be can often be dropped, especially in common fixed expressions like ifnecessary. I' 〃〃アル r 坦リ〃 ece “ ( = ... 既″な necessary.) 加 do “わⅢな 4 〃 d see. ( = ア 0 ″ 4 尾ⅲ do リ ... ) e れ in 0 襯 e , do the 0 襯〃 s イ 0. C00 た s Ⅲケ“れー住イ必 Once 加わ ed, / 尾 4 r れれⅣ襯ⅲの滬市 e れ turned 0 砒 the 〃 g 〃た Many conjunctions that express time relations (after, before, since, Ⅲ〃 e 〃 , Ⅲ〃〃 e , whenever, once and リ厩〃 ) can often be followed by -ing forms or past participles instead 0f subjects and Ⅱ verbs (see 406.6 ). 襯Ⅲ el わ e な er “尹催礰加 g yo “ . Some ⅲ gs 尾〃 e r ル rgo な e 〃 , once ル conjunctions in separate sentences Normally a conjunction connects tWO clauses intO one sentence. However, sometimes a conjunction and its clause can stand alone. This happens, for example, in answers. ・↓〃 4 尾″ going get ″〃 ' ″肥れ l'm “イ y. 7 初 going 0 , グリ襯 . ' $ $ 00 れ 0 わロん ed 0 r 炉 . ' page 130
2 3 4 5 46 1 alSO, as well, tOO and either in negative clauses 46 reference These words can refer to different parts of a clause, depending on the meaning. Consider the sentence We 〃 at meetings 0 れ S リれ da ア s 住 e 〃 . This can mean three different things: a ( 0 市催〃 eo 〃 have meetings 0 〃 S Ⅲ滬 4 , 〃め we 〃 4 襯行〃 gs 0 〃 S Ⅲ滬 4 well. b ()e do 0 催 things 0 れ S リ〃 da , れめ we 住 meetings 0 〃 S Ⅲ 4 c ()e have meetings 0 〃 0 市 da , 4 〃め we 〃 at ℃ meetings 0 れ S d れア $ well. When we speak, we show the exact meaning by stressing the word or expression that 4 な 0 / Ⅲ e 〃 / 0 refers to. lmperatives and short answers AS we 〃 and 0 are used in imperatives and ・ short answers', but not usually 4 な 0. Give me some わ尾 d e 〃 , 〃厄 e. (More natural than な 0 give me... ) ・ S わ e nice. ' ・ Her sister な we 〃 . ' (More natural than 邵 sister なな 0. り 7 ' レ e got 4 わ da e. ' 7 〃知 0. ' (More natural than 7 “な 0 〃 4 り ln very informal speech, we often use Me 0 as a short answer. 7 初 going 0 襯 e. ' ・ル知 0. More formal equivalents are So 4 襯ー or ー襯ね 0 , but not な な 0 referring tO a whOle clause A な 0 can be used at the beginning of a clause to refer to the whole clause. lt's nice 0 リ se , わ″ s ″ za 〃 . A な 0 , ″ needs ー可尾〃 rs. 0 in a formal style ln a formal or literary style, 0 can be placed directly after the subject. 去 0 , at experienced despair. For な 0 , as we 〃 , 0 and either in negative clauses, see 46. For な 0 and e れ , see 195.3. For we 〃 , see 77. SO , as well, t00 and either in negative clauses negative 十 negative: either After mentioning a negative idea or fact, we can add another negative point by using 〃 . . either. スな 0 , we 〃 and 0 are not normally used with れ 0 ーⅲ (N 0 T 4 イ o がを・〃・坦・加の ーん〃 0 Ⅲ坦リ d0 がロ i 襯 e ゴ do れ〃ん e 坦リ either. (N 0 T ・扣〃ル学物 e 丑なの Peter 〃わ e 尾 da 必加〃〃れわ e 尾 ei 催 . this way. page 39