3 4 5 583 1 verbs with two objects 583 word order with objects Prepositions and particles dO not always go in the same place in clauses with objects. Prepositions normally go before objects. 〃 e 〃 0 窈 e 阮 ge. (NOT 君 e 〃 - e ド g 0 窈 ) Particles can go before or after noun objects. She s Ⅲ c 〃 0 ガ市 e 〃 g れ OR She switched the 〃 g ー 0 窈 But particles can only go after pronoun objects. She s Ⅲ″肥 0 窈 (NOT 一 S 〃 e { e 〃 ed -0 窈 # 9 ム砒 the 〃 g 厄 c 坦″ switched 0 Give me わ c た〃ⅣⅢ砒 c ん 0 R Give me ″ⅣⅢ砒 c 〃わ“ c た . (NOT ー G ル e “た e サ襯 el objects at the beginning 0f clauses When an object comes at the beginning Of a clause (). g. in a question or relative clause), a two-word verb usually stays together, SO that a preposition can be separated from its object and go at the end 0f the clause. For details 0f this and Other preposition-final structures, see 440. I' 怩Ⅲ the わ 00 た which ⅱ″ 0 加 g 工 br. (More natural ⅲ an informal style than... the わ 00 ん工 br c / Ⅲ 0 たⅲ g. ) stress At the end of a clause, a preposition is usually unstressed, while an adverb particle is usually stressed. Compare: T 〃 were ・ ca 〃 0 〃 . (preposition) They were c 〃ツ〃 . (particle) For details Of particular two-word verbs, see the 0 工 D / c 行 0 〃 ) ′ 0fPhrasal 梔 r 伝 VOIume 1 , or the LO 〃 g 〃〃 Dictionao•' 可 2 〃 ras / Vi 邵わ & verbs 、ⅵ . th tWO Obj ects indirect and direct Obj ects Many verbs can be followed by two objects ー one indirect and one direct. UsuaIly the indirect object refers tO a person, and comes first. Some common verbs which are used like this: Let me 襯 4 ん eyo some 化 1 Ⅲな〃 0 住 Merry Christmas. I'II 厄〃 d 0 “ so 襯 e. CO ″坦″〃イ e the わ襯 He gave な wife 〃 camerafor C / 〃・なな〃 . bring COS get leave 〃 7 〃 ke 0 we read send S 〃 0 Ⅲ Slng take page 612

9 536 537 538 1 spelling and pronunciation 538 Why double? The reason for doubling is to show that a vowel is pronounced short. This is because, in the middle of a word, a stressed vowel letter before 0 〃 e consonant is usually pronounced as a long vowel or as a diphthong (double vowel). Compare: hoping 尸 haop 円 / わ 0 〃〃ⅲ g /lhDP10/ r /llelta(r)/ なハ記い ( r ) / diner /ldalna(r)/ 市れ〃 er /ldlna(r)/ spelling ( 8 ) : ch and tch, k and ck After one vowel, at the end of a word, we usually write -ck and - 〃 for the sounds /k/ and / t 工 /. わ砒〃 e 豆 c / 0 stuck catch なな c んわ c / Ⅲな Exceptions: 4 tic (and many other words ending ⅲ -ic) r なんⅢ c s ″襯″砒 c ん After a consonant or tWO vowels, we write - た and - c 〃 . わのⅢ 0 襯 al ・ c わ e 〃 わ尾たわ 00 た week 〃 c ん co 召 c spelling ( 9 ) : ie and ei The sound /i:/ ()s in わ e 〃 e レの is often written but not usually ei. However, we write ei after c. English-speaking children learn a rhyme: ・ i before e, except after c'. believe c イ e grief piece shield ceiling deceive receive receipt Exceptions: seize, Neil, Keith. spelling and pronunciation ln many English words, the spelling is different from the pronunciation. This is mainly because our pronunciation has changed a good deal over the last few hundred years, while our spelling system has stayed more or less the The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced. usually tWO syllables, not three p ronunciatio ns. same. Here is a list Of some difflcult common words with their わの〃 e choc(o)late d ( の尾厩 卲②〃ⅲ g e 可の ・ ri(a)ge om ②厄な e 尾立の ra ′な 可の ra / 襯① c ⅲ e ()S three syllables) page 559

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 letters 317 After ・ Dear X', put a comma or nothing at all, not an exclamation mark ( ! ). ()n American English, a comma is preferred in personalletters and a colon ( : ) in business letters. ) Either leave an empty line after ・ Dear X' and start again on the left, or start again on the next line, a few spaces from the left. DO the same for each new paragraph. (The first method is now the most common in Britain. ) Letters which begin Dear S 炉 3 or DearMadam usually finish Yours 襯必 Formalletters which begin with the person's name (). g. DearMiss 〃Ⅲんⅲ s , Dear r Lewis) usually finish ・ s sincerely. lnformalletters may finish, for example, 物リ S ア 0 ″ or LO . 仏 0 is not usually used by one man t0 another. ) ln formalletters, many people put a closing formula , especially when writing t0 people they know: common before Yours . expressions are Ⅳ / 市わ e 立Ⅲな〃 and Ⅳ / 市 kind 尾 ga & Sign with your first name (informal) or your んⅡ name (formal), but without writing any title いカ・ / / Dr / etc). Ways ofwriting one's んⅡ name: スれ お 0 ス FO 浦 AJForbes. ln a formal typewritten letter, add your んⅡ typewritten name after your handwritten signature. Friendly business letters are Often signed with the first name only above the full typewritten name: Yours sincerely A れ Forbes ln informalletters, afterthoughts that are added after the signature are usually introduced by P S (Latin 〃 0 立 scriptum = ・ written afterwards り . On the envelope, put the first name before the surname. People usually write a title (Mr, Mrs etc) before the name. You can write the first name in んⅡ ()I ・ s ス〃 ge Brookes), or you can write one or more initials いイ rs ス石 Brookes). lt was once common tO put the abbreviated title Esq ( = 石 Sq ″わ℃ ) after a man's name; thiS iS now very unusual. British people now usually write abbreviated titles, initialS' addresses dates' and opening and closing formulae without commas or んⅡ stops. American usage iS different from BritiSh in some ways: Commas are sometimes used at the endS Of lines in addresses; full stops may be used at the ends 0f addresses; んⅡ stops are used after abbreviated titles. After the opening salutation, Americans may put a colon, especially in business letters (Dear カ・ . 〃Ⅲん es : ) , or a comma. G な厄襯 e れ is used instead ofDear Sirs. Dates are written differently (month before day) ー see 151. YO リ工 4 ″〃〃ア is not used; common endings are Sincerely, Sincerely yours or 物肝 s な襯必 followed by a comma. Americans are Often addressed (and sign their names) with the first name ⅲⅡ , followed by the initial 0f a middle name い〃 1 Pa ). This is less usual in Britain. ロ ロ page 308

spelling and pronunciation 538 2 usually three syllables, not four The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced. 襯〃 ( の ratu 尾 co 〃 ( or ) わ厄 ⑩ 4 娵 わな ( の尾 s 行〃 g 怩 g ②わ厄 secret(a)ry (USf0L11 ・リ〃わ厄引 3 silent letters The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced. c 〃襯 ( わ ) co 襯砌市 ( わ ) / 〃 ( めた e 尾厄イ〃 ( めⅢ / c 〃Ⅳ可め〃 esda. ア わ側 c 砒ィ側 0 リ 面″の・ i の〃襯 / 曾 / 〃のわ 0 Ⅲ・ ⅲ / 山 / 立 rai ro ″の行眦 i 曾の Ⅲ ( の砒Ⅲ ( の例Ⅲ ( の e 尾Ⅲ ( の e 市夜・Ⅲ ( 〃万 c 〃Ⅲ ( ゆⅢ ( の (Some speakers use an unvoiced /W/ in these words. ) ( の 0 〃 e ( 0 肝 ( の 0 肝 (k)nee 肉〃肉〃 0 わ肉〃。 c た肉Ⅲ Ⅲ 0 リ① d c 可り襯 co リ① d ha(l)f ①襯 0 〃 0 可り d ta ①たⅢ可りた 砒襯 cm ⑩わア襯⑩ ( 〃 ) れ夜行 c ( 翔 c 〃液な / 立の ) リ ch0 部′ ( 〃 ) 餉 0 era 〃 (p)terodactyl c 可〃 04 i ( わ 0 〃 (British pronunciation) i ①れ d / 3 Ⅲ〃な①厄 c ① C 〃①〃 / ① e 〃〃 s ① e 〃可の e 〃 ( 0 尹 e 〃 can also be pronounced / ・ D 工 /. ) g ⑩ g ⑩ / 虎 g ⑩な 0 の ra 〃 ( r (w)rong (w)ho ( ′ ( Ⅲ川 0 厄 4 any 襯 Thames 匚 5 ache arc ″ e け character c e 襯なー C r ななれ as s 襯 ac い page 560

13 14 1 2 3 adjectives ending in -ed: pronunciation 13 adjectives ending -ed: pronunciation A few adjectives ending ⅲ -ed have a special pronunciation: the last syllable is pronounced /ld/ instead 0f /d/ or /t/. They are: aged /Ie1d31d/(= very め わ elo /b111Av1d/ わ厄 /blesld/ crooked /krukld/ cursed /Ik3:s1d/ dogged /ldD91d/ / ea ″肥 /113:n1d/ 〃ん ed /lnelkld/ ragged な記 91d / rugged /lmgld/ sacred /lselkrld/ wicked /lwlkld/ Ⅲ尾〃 /lretfld/ 0 〃 e / 市尾 e 0 リ r - 厄 gged /llegld/ N0te that aged is pronounced /e1d3d/ when it means years 01d' ()s in He 〃 daughter aged 〃 ) , or when it is a verb. Other adjectives ending in -ed always have the normal pronunciation, with /ld/ only after d or た undecided /And11sa1d1d/ hunchbacked /lhAntJbækt/ tired /ta10d/ adjectives: order before When several adjectives come before a noun ()r When nouns are used tO modify another noun), they usually have t0 be put in a particular order. For instance, we say 4 工 4 ー 0 d. 必 not - 砒 4 工“目め咢 4 $ 川“〃 shiny わ c た leather 〃の滬わ ag , not -44e4 e ドみ e $ 〃 $ 〃〃 - 砒わ日 & Unf0 rtunately, the rules for adjective order are very complicated, and different grammars disagree about the details. Here are some Of the most important rules: colour, origm, material and purpose Adjectives ()r modifying nouns) 0f colour, origin, material and purpose usually go in that order. colour 4 わ ro Ⅲ〃 origrn material purpose noun S 〃 4 ⅲ厄 4 市 er 阨〃液れ glass 市〃 g beer 、″ 0 Ⅲ er わ 00 な mug VCISe Other adjectives page 8 〃 & cooldrink Wh0's 市砒 $ 〃工“ na 〃 0 レ邵催 others. Examples are / 0 怩ケ , definite, 〃″尾 , 4 伝 0 / 砒 e , 既な e 襯 e , 〃円け , Adjectives which express judgements or attitudes usually come before all judgements and attitudes ん〃 g , ア e poles 4 〃 , ancient 04 た - な ee & 襯 0d 催れわ c house (N OT - 川 04e ” - ・ g - 扉なた - / 田の the round g わ厄 (NOT - ・語 e ・ g 子 0 Ⅷ - の height Often come first. purpose. lt is impossible tO give exact rules, but adjectives Of size, length and Other adjectives usually go before words 0f colour, origin, material and

5 6 7 540 1 stress, rhythm and intonation 54 ① happened sooner than expected. 財の e が s SalIygoing co 襯 ' ・ She's already / 肥尾 . ' related tO a past moment All three words can be related tO a past moment instead Of tO the present. 1 e れれ 0 see ifshe had Ⅲ 0 た e 〃″〃 yet, わ砒 she Ⅲ $ 〃 e 〃 . T 〃なⅢ e 襯わ arra ⅲ & because わ介 ie 〃ホ had re 住イア・ rived. tenses Various tenses are possible with all three words. ln British English, perfect tenses are common with 〃℃ 4 イ and e Americans Often prefer past tenses. Compare: 社“ 0 “ called thegarageyet? (GB) D 0 “ call thegarageyet? (US) She's 耘 e 住イ j' ル立 . (GB) She already 食 (US) position ス耘 ead. ア and 立襯 usually go ⅲ・ mid-position' (see 22 ). ス尾リ already 〃催 She's s 〃Ⅲ 0 ⅲ g. ス〃℃ 4 イ is not usually put with time adverbials. ↓肥れ一住工 0 ee 〃ーレ e d アた〃 e Ⅲ 4 ーれのな ed be 4 doctor. (N OT - , 4 耘 4 併トれ睚 e ル . ) ー〃 1970 Britain's cat ・ⅲ d リⅣⅢ already ⅲ 0 ″ s な 0 ″わ厄 (NOT - , 4 4 加 4 ・ 970... ) ス耘 eady can also go at the end 0f a clause for emphasis. A 尾ア 0 リわ e 尾作 e 住イ y.? 物″襯 tha 怩刪〃 4 〃 the Ⅲ 4 必 Yet usually goes at the end Of a clause, but it can go immediately after 〃 0 ⅱ n a formal style. DO 〃 7e4 ー thepeat ・ s ー市 at ℃〃 7 ripeyet. The 〃尾れ 0 ー可 ripe. (more formal) For Other meanings Of 立襯 andyet, see a good dictionary. For the difference between these words and e ら see 197. stress, rhythm and intonation stress Stress is the word for the ・ strength' with which syllables are pronounced. ln speech, some parts 0f English words and sentences sound much louder than others. For example, the first syllable of c. ス R 〃 the second syllable 0f / れ SP 石 C 行 0 〃 or the last syllable Of conFUSE are usually stressed, while the Other syllables in these words are not. ln the sentence DO 〃 7 わ 0 ん 4 ー〃ーー 孖石 d 〃 7 dO 川 the words わ / 襯 and he are stressed in order tO emphasise vowels, and they may be pronounced on a higher pitch. them. Stressed syllables are not only louder; they may also have longer page 563

73 1 2 3 4 as, when and while (simultaneous events) 73 as, when and while (simultaneous events) TO talk about actions or situations that take place at the same time, we can use as, ~ e 〃 or Ⅲ〃〃 e. There are some differences. 'backgrounds': , e れ or ル We can use all three words tO introduce a longer ・ background' action or situation, which is /was going on when something else happens / happened. AsIwas w 礰加 gdO 〃 e $ な e 可ーⅢ加 e 市・加ⅲ ga Porsche. The 厄〃〃 0 〃 e 襯Ⅲ 4 rings ん e 〃ア 0 ““リ加 g 4 わ市 . While were 〃ア加 g cards, 襯 e わ 0 broke ⅲ市 zo e. AS-, Ⅲ〃 e 〃 - and while-clauses can go at the beginning or end of sentences, but as-clauses usually introduce less important information, and most often go at the beginning. A progressive tense is usually used for the longer ・ background' action or situation ( ⅢⅢたⅲ & are ⅵ〃 g ; were 〃アⅲ g ). But and while can be used with a simple tense, especially with a verb like 豆 4 lie, or grow which refers tO a continuous action or state. As ーー尾市れ g the 〃 4 〃 er , the door わリ r 立 0 〃 e 〃 . simultaneous long actions: w ん〃 We usually use ルわ〃 e tO say that two longer actions or situations go /went on at the same time. We can use progressive or simple tenses. ー仍ル 0 were readingthe 〃 4 〃 er , れ尠住 or た加 g. れ cooked supper ルー“ ed れ ( AS is used (with simple tenses) tO talk about two situations which develop or change together. AsIgetolderIget more 0 〃行襯な行 c. We prefer Ⅲ〃 e 〃 t0 refer to ages and periods oflife. 碗 e れれ尠住 c we lived ⅲ 0 れ do 〃 . (NOT フ 4 $ / 碗〃 e - れ丑 -6 イ ... ) 〃な〃尾〃な市 e e 〃 he Ⅲ twelve. (NOT . .- み e 召 & e ルの simultaneous short actions: 0 ーり 0 s り e 〃 We usually use 0 t) to say that two short actions or events happen/ happened at the same time. As 10 〃 e れ e イ襯ア eyes 1 わ ea 4 strange レ衍 ce. イげⅢ 4 ア s 4 なル es ーー立なⅢ or ん . け t) Ⅲ〃 e 〃 is also possible. れ〃 0 ″ g 厩可なー when 坦リ 0 〃 e 〃坦″ r 〃 10 リ市 . reduced clauses with when and while lt is often possible t0 leave out subject + be after Ⅲ〃 e 〃 (especially when it ( =... Ⅲわ e れ坦″ 4 尾 turning right. ) DO れ 7 rg 豆 g 〃 when 加 rn 加 g g 厩 . means'whenever'), and after Ⅲわ〃 e. p age 73

5 2 1 2 3 4 5 abbreviations and acronyms 2 headlines Newspaper headlines have their own special grammar and vocabulary. For details, see 366. 石 CO 沢 D DRUGS 〃スけん AT ス 7 PO T : SIX HELD FO UR DIE ール M6 おス / E For Other rules about leaving words out ( ・ ellipsis'), see 181 ー 186. abbreviations and acronyms punctuation We usually write abbreviations without full stops in modern British English. Full stops ()S ・ periods') are normal ⅲ American English. Mr ()S 介 . ) = Mister (not usually written in Ⅱ ) kg ()S た g.. ) = kilogram Ltd ()S 雇 ) = 襯な ed ( co 襯〃 4 〃刃 initial-letter abbreviations Some abbreviations are made from the first letters Of several words. This Often happens with the names Of organisations. the BBC = the B 廰〃 Broadcasting CO 甲 ora 行 0 〃 UNESCO = United Ⅳ 4 行 0 〃 s Ed ″ ca 行 0 〃 4 ん Scientific 〃イ C ″″リ ra / Orga 〃な行 0 れ some initial-letter abbreviations are pronounced letter by letter (). g. the BBC). Others are pronounced like words (). g. UNESCO) ー these are often c alled acronyms. letter-by-letter abbreviations: pronunciation These abbreviations are most Often stressed on the last letter. the USA / う 9 ju: eslel/ theBBC / う 9 bi: bi: : / If one 0f these abbreviations has an article ( 4 / 4 〃 or 市の , the form and pronunciation Of the article depend on the pronunciation Of the first letter Of the abbreviation. Compare: れ一沢ス attack “ US diplomat /aju: ... / (NOT ・召ル U &... ) BA degree 〃 MP /an em ... / (NOT 丑 - M 円 the USA /öaju: ... / (NOT / -0 ⅱ - j 忸、 .. / ) theRSPCA /öi: a:r ... / (NOT / 9 ー午 ... / ) acronyms: articles Articles are usually dropped in acronyms (abbreviations that are pronounced like words). UNESCO (NOT 4he-UALES-GO) plurals An apostrophe ( ' ) is sometimes used before the sin the plurals 0f abbreviations: MP'S or MPs; CD'S ( = ・ compact discs') or CDS. page 2

6 455 I 2 3 punctuation ( 3 ) : comma 455 letters Americans usually put a colon after the opening salutation (Dear... ) in a business letter. Dear 介 . C 〃 : BritiSh usage prefers a comma or no punctuation mark at all in thiS case. punctuation ( 3 ) : comma Commas ( , ) generally reflect pauses in speech. lists We use commas tO separate items in a series or list. ln BritiSh English' a comma is not usually used with 4 〃 d between the last tWO items unless these are long. Compare: ⅱ″夜な S 〃ⅲ , れ記必 Switzerland, ス作液〃 d Germany. (US: ... ス作液 , の滬 G 催襯の . ) 物リ〃 d 4 〃 0 〃 da ! 砒 Christmas, atNew 阨滬砒 E r. な〃 e 厩 e 〃〃 g cricket, / な〃ⅲ g t0 れ尾 cor ホ , の talking わ 0 砒〃肥襯れⅲ g 可〃 . adjectives ln predicative position (see 15 ) , commas are always used between adjectives. The co ⅢわⅢ〃 , dark の滬 / 〃ホ 0 襯 e. Before a noun, we generally use commas between adjectives which give similar kinds Of information. T 〃なな an expensive, i 〃ャれれ e “ e, 第〃〃 r 可 e は Commas are sometimes dropped between short adjectives. 4 〃 6 ) dark(,) 0 襯 e co Ⅲわ Commas cannot be dropped when modifiers refer t0 different parts 0f S 0 mething. ag e 瑪 d 召〃 dgo carpet (NOT 観 - ee - ド ed .. ) co れ c g の川行 c わリ〃市〃 gs Commas are not normally used between adjectives that give different kinds Of information. (NOT . . 刊仔イ根〃ホ 0 e 肥 , 第砒 i 襯 - 襯紹はひ ) word order lfwords or expressions are put in unusual places or interrupt the progression Of a sentence, usually separate them Off by commas. (NOT TWO commas are necessary in these cases. ス〃イ尾Ⅲ Ca 挈 e 厩 e ら the deputy ル s m 住れ ge らⅢ豆 c ん . We were, believe or れ 0 in / 0 〃 e Ⅲな〃 each 0 〃 er. 〃 e 〃 ad , $ “甲 r なⅲ g 〃 4 r 卲 e Ⅳⅲ g. M ア e ら 0 e ら did 〃 g 尾 e. page 468

18 19 20 21 = 3 9 + 3 = 3 3 x 4 7 ー 4 2 + 2 = 4 = 12 numbers 385 ノ B 〃〃な = 56.8 cl 7 US 〃わな = 47.3cl 8 〃ⅲな ( 8 廖 ) = ノ ga 〃 0 〃 7 Br ″な〃 ga 〃 0 〃 = 4.55 〃な 7 USga 〃 0 れ = 3.78 尾 s 7 ac 尾 = 4 , 840S 甲尾ア s = 0.4 hectares 7 sq こ尾襯〃 e = 640 acres = 259 〃 British people usually measure their weight in 0 〃 and 〃 0 リ〃 d Americans just use 〃 0 ″〃 d & Height is measured infeet; distance can also be measured in feet, but longer distances are Often measured in yards. れもⅵ g わ eight $ 知抛 e six. (N OT . . ー g ′ - 0 冊 - 豆工 ) We 尾〃 0 Ⅲア亶〃 g ー〃 altitude 可 28 , 000 工可 . The carpark's straight 0 〃 , わ 0 500 “ r ホ 0 〃 the g . areas We say, for example, that a room is tu ′ el 怩′尹 ee 〃 e れ or that a garden is 炉Ⅳ metres byforty-eight 襯可尾 & A room れ怩ん e tu ル e can be called tu ′ el 怩可 $ 甲 ; the total area is 744 $ 甲工可 . a and per When relate れ V() different measures, we usually use / 〃 ; per iS Often used in formal writing. れ costs tW0 〃 0 ″〃ホⅢん . (... 2 per week. ) we're do ⅲ g 〃Ⅳ miles “〃〃 0 リ r. (... 川〃ⅲ perhour/ 襯〃ん ) numbers as complements Numbers are used as subjects or objects, but not usually as complements after わ e. l'vegot 尾 e 豆立催 & (NOT 一 M. & 召紹・ - ) T ′肥尾尾れ怩ん e 可ⅲ″Ⅳ′ⅲ (More natural than - ・Ⅳ召 - tu ル e 、 .. ) spoken calculations Common ways 0f saying calculations in British English are: Two and two な尾ル″ r. (informal) TIVO 川 two e 甲な / なル肝 . (formal) FO ″ r 介 om 怩〃な〃 eaves 尾 e. (informal) 立怩〃 take Ⅲ″ r な〃 ea 怩 s 尾 e. (informal) Seven m ⅲル″ r e 甲な / な尾 e. (formal) T 〃尾 e ルリ尾れ怩ん e. (informal) Three ⅲれル″ r な tu レ e. (informal) Three ″Ⅲ″ゆ〃肝 e な / な tu ア el 怩 . (formal) 7 カ尾 e into ninegoes 尾 e ( ⅲ〃 ). (informal) Nine divided 尾 e e な / な尾 e. (formal) page 388