BOROBUDUR 、イ纉多韆第い that symbolize the formless world of pure knowledge and perfection. beings—finally arr1V1ng at the great circular terraces at the top Of the structure of desire, the life story of Buddha, and the heroic deeds of other enlightened enlightenment, and one ascends the monument past scenes depicting the world a kilometer,. These are arranged so as tO take the visitor on a sp1ritualJ0urney tO relief panels extending along its many terraces for a total distance of more than million people. Borobudur contalns more than a thousand exquisitely carved Plain of CentraI Java in lndonesia, where it IS visited annually by over a Buddhist monument in the world—stands in the midst of the lush Kedu HE glorious ninth-century Buddhist stupa of Borobudur—the largest ー S B N 0 - 9 4 5 9 7 1 - 9 0 - 7 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 9 780945 971900 USA $ 29.95 UK ロ 9.95 AustraIia $ 45 Singapore $ 45 (excluding GST)

task. They evolved in lndia from popular beliefs in magic and spells that are even older than Buddhism. They are many kinds, but a11 advise devotees hOW tO achieve CILIIC spiritual liberatlon and worldly powers by taking medicines, performing rituals, and dOing mental an physical exerclses. YogiC exercises began tO appear in some Mahayana sects by the fourth century A. D. Suma- tran lnscrlptions fror れ the late seventh century already refer tO dd あ 4 ) 観け 4 or pilgrimages tO sacred spots tc perform rituals aimed at obtaining success. ' By the end of the ninth century the Va ノな ) 4 〃 4 or 。 of thc Thunderbolt" which promised quick liberation throug TantriC practices had become very popular in Java (see ス ppe 〃市ェ C, 。乃ル。 / な ' ). One Of the prlncipal character1st1CS Of な〃わ・ 45 is the attention they pay tO the bOdy. The more austere sects 0 ー Buddhism treat the body as nothing but an illusion and 2 hindrance. 7 ン〃わ・ as V1ew the bOdy in a more favorable light, considering it tO be a reflection Of divinity an arguing that mind and b0dy cannot be separated but ar€ merely different aspects of one all-embracing reality. On a more general level, ー 4 〃わ・ 4 ゞ assume that a11 opposmg forces are ultimately connected and that harmony can be achieved by reconciling them. Thus な〃け argue that the lndoneslans must have contributed their 0 嶬 " n concepts ln body should be cultivated to help attain liberation. addition to helping spread those from lndia, but unfortu- As Esoteric Buddhism evolved during the seventh to nately very few manuscripts have survived tO ShOW us the tenth centurles, manuals became elaborate and what these were. the use Of S01 れ e Of them became restricted. Many dOC- Many Of the clues must therefore come from a study trlnes which emerged in the ーなノ 4 ) ′ 4 〃 4 were supposed tO Of Buddhist texts and practices outside Of lndonesla at be kept secret from the uninitiated and 0n1 メ divulged to this time. Many Esoteric Buddhists were then making use those whom the teachers judged to be suitable. Of practlces which were being codified in な〃わ・ 4 or SP1r1- As more 〃わ・れゞ were compiled, teachers divided them intO four categories. The lower tWO levels were for people tual "manuals. '' TantriC practices were well established in lndonesla even before Borobudur は S built. Ceremomes WhO needed statues Of deities S1nce they could not visual- lnvolving drinking, feastlng, dancing on crematlon ize them unaided. A master allocated a specific deity tO such people—gentle deities for the weak; violent and grounds and rituallove-making were frequently conduct- even demomc ones for stronger personalities, With the ed here, especially during the fourteenth century in east- characterlstlcs Of the deities corresponding tO qualities ern Java and Sumatra. which the devotee must attempt tO conquer. The third Some scholars have argued that Borobudur was not influenced by Tantric beliefs because the relief panels do and fourth levels were meant for people who no longer not depict erOt1C ceremonles or demon1C gods, but in fact needed icons tO enVIS10n the deities. Borobudur's struc- 〃わ・ 4 ゞ were Of many types, and the earlier forms were ture appears tO mcorporate this idea Of categories because the lower levels have very clear illustratlons whereas the Often more gentle. Several aspects Of Borobudur, such as the placement of the six types of Buddha statues, clearly upper levels are more abstract. demonstrate that its builders followed a number of The Kings of Ancient Java Tantric precepts whether or not these already belonged to a standardized system. Buddhism was less popular than Hinduism ln anclent Java. The earliest statues and temples found on the island Characteristics of Tantric Buddhism 7 ン〃け 45 contain practical instructlons on hO , tO accomplish a specific are dedicated to Siva and Visnu. The Hindu 火れ襯 4 〃 4 22 HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 員川襯 4 〃行 c 元窺 , 可召 0 川房・り〃 . Ⅳ 臾 4 ~ 〃ハー 0 0 ム the 襯 0 〃〃襯 e 〃ー the 〃元 d ー ノ 80 広 . The 4 滝イ孕ん〃 7 〃、われ厖ん尹 を g 川 4 〃

、障導 : ぎを 、い当 い . Vairocana. (IVB. (2) Then follow yet more miraculous Above: De ″ 0 襯 4 〃 0 訪〃 e / 訪 03 g 立襯 4 厩あ 4 市 4 な”スみ d 4 襯 4 たお the scenes: ClOL1dS Of fragrant trees With incense burners bhumisparsa mudra, 0 房 e 翔 e イみ ) 4 5 厩り (IVB. (3), clothes, pearls, wish-granting jewels, and many royalfigure 4 いツ g 厖 . 4 〃 e / IV.54) other lands and celestial beings. On the panels of the northeast balustrade, Sudhana Following pages (left side): 0 〃 e 研 4 れぉ finally attains the perfection of the ten stages of knowl- 〃ん訪 M り 4 訪 0 在る S 渤 4 〃 4 e 〃お / 0 襯あな 24 / お 45 にズ 4 襯 2 / お 0 / 訪 e edge. ( Ⅳ B. 81 ) Then Samantabhadra touches Sudhana on good e み 4 % 4 な訪 pe イ。 rm. the head. (IVB. (2) The next two reliefs show buddhas in ぉ e c ル襯 e 市な。〃 , 訪 4 り , 在 , 訪た the four 襯 d 4 symbolic Of the four main directlons. がれ g B イイ厖 , 4 〃 dp c gp 5 逾り。 ga ・ Beginning at the east gate, the maln wall 0f the fourth アあな 24 4 な〃 e. / 襯 4 ) 市 ca the 耘亡 ue gallery illustrates the last part of the Ga 〃 da ワ ) 〃あ 4. 4 市れ & 4 襯 4 〃立 4 〃市〃 g 4 〃 d 4 24 50 / 担んれ d 4 なあ房市〃 g 0 を“な厖訪 Sudhana has become one with Samantabhadra, who pro- 襯 % 磋 5. 衂 el 〃 /. 49 ) nounces a VO ". lt begins With an expresslon Of homage tO the buddhas of the ten directions (perhaps illustrated by Following pages (right side): ぉ 4 立 r 諸 the ten buddhas in IV.I). Then he refers to buddhas sit- 0 〃召 oro みイ 4 4 ve リイ乞″″た ting among bodhisattvas ( IV. 2 , 3 ) and promises offer- り 2 厩 g みり 4 房 4 は 2 。れあ 0 / 枋 e Gandavyuha ん訪イぉ the 叩 4 れ化 ings—flowers (IV.5), garlands (IV.6), music (IV.7), and ide, where we see a site of enlightenment (IVB. (1) and c 厩 4 房 e み d を。襯 4 川〃 d the parasols (IM9)—to a11 buddhas. ther representatlons Of 1 れ ore abstract conceptS' such as 4 れ巳アあ e ) 4 e 5 0 , 〃 , つ 4 〃 0 ゞ Around the corner on the south face, the first relief ind people. One VIS10n shows beings absorbed in con- 5 ッ〃 2 み 0 な 54C あ 45 立 245 , 5 〃 5 , 4 〃イ〃 700 〃 s depicts Samantabhadra seated to the right of a stupa. This emplating Buddha. (IVB. (2) Next Sudhana sees ten ん訪 4 d れ 0 acc 厩ル r. may represent the offering Of a basket Of incense as large right lights, some in the form 0f flowers and jewels 伊 4 / IV.72) as a mountain WhiCh the text mentions. ( IV. 13 ) More IVB. (3), and others that are more difficult to depict, buddhas and offerings appear. The text contains more uch as perfumes. pious wishes for the good of all creatures. Samantabhadra Just on the east side of the north gate Sudhana finally )ees Samantabhadra (IVB. 70 or 71 ) sitting in front 0f vows t0 teach serpent beings ( IV. 31 ) , ogres ( IV.32 ー 33 ) , T 日石 GANDAVYUHA 141 、宀

ぜ疉 " いを ′レ : ユ 3 ー ・気こゑぃ←、 第よ毎 試き、ヾ by snapping his fingers again. Maitreya instructs Sudhana t10n is only very briefly summarized in the text. tO see Manjusr1 once more. The figure in the center Of the Now begins the final part of the scripture. Sudhan next three panels ( IVB. 43 ー 45 ) probably represents Man- S1ts, contemplating the place where Buddha attained en Jusri with his boy's cords across his chest. Sudhana bids lightenment and wishing tO see the bodhisattva samant farewell to Maitreya. (IVB. 4 / ) bhadra. As he meditates ( IVB. 52 ー 53 ) , Sudhana begins t On his way to see Manjusri, Sudhana passes through have VIS10ns preparing him for Samantabhadra's appea more than 110 cities. While he is still 110 leagues away ance. These are ten VlS10ns of Buddha lands, some (IVB. (0), Manjusri stretches out his hand to touch which have lotus ponds. (IVB. 54) Sudhana's head (IVB. 51 ). They talk, but their conversa- VISIOIIS contlntle around the corner on the nort 第ツ Above: S れ〃 74 アな 4 みあ 4d1 ・ 4 な 00 ,. He なーあに み 0 な 0 〃 7 ce 〃第 , ″ああなーあ 1 で e づ〃〃〃 ed. 〃 0 ℃ ? : 、な渤 4 〃 4 な 0 〃ん 5 生〃スみ 00 にん襯 are 〃わ ze みイイあれゞこ 30 川 35. アん 0 覊みれ黻れ 4 〃 / 〃 dharmacakra mudra; ー 05e / 〃 . 〃・ 0 〃ー 47 で / 〃 mudras CO で平 0 〃市〃 g 一んル jina 房ィ d 渤。〃召。川み 4 をあげ、に 4 ム が efif 。〃 the な pp の・ , れ〃 . No one 厖 5 succeeded 〃〃 / 〃 g ん訪 pal 才イ e x 概んロで〃イが c な . 4 〃 el ハ : 刃 ) 140 THE RELIEFS

disclosed was gradually spread by merchants along trade routes tO many Other parts Of ASia. Buddhism considered merchants to be self-sacrificing people who undertook long and dangerous Journeys ln order tO satisfy Other people's needs. Merchants are depicted as heroes in the た 4 and 4 ヮ 4 ぬ〃 4 stories. They felt protected by the numerous buddhas and bodhisattvas and erected many statues, lnscriptlons and shrines throughout Central and East Asia, from isolated oases along the Silk Route to cosmopolitan centers Of culture in China and Japan. Today Buddhism and ancient traditions of Buddhist scholarship still flourish in a vast region reaching from the HimaIayas to Japan, enabling us to trace Buddhism's complex development through much of this period. From the very earliest period Buddhists have held two alternatlve vlewpoints regarding the proper path tO salva- t10n. According tO the more austere V1e み , each person must find his own way tO ultimate release fror れ the end- less cycle of rebirth. The process of spiritual advancement iS long and arduous, requirmg many lifetimes Of sacrifice 、、ツをゞ第 .. before escape frOI れ the rounds Of reincarnatlon and suffering. Within a few generatlons after Sakyamuni's death, some teachers began tO claim that the process could be The discovery of such a monumental work of art ln accelerated with special knowledge. People could hope to reach the state of ultimate bliss through the help of cer- the hinterland Of a remote island in Southeast ASia came tain bodhisattvas or "enlightening beings" who had as a great surprise tO the outside world. ThiS was 47 years already reached the stage of perfect knowledge, but V01 ー before Henri Mouhaut called attentlon tO the remarkable untarily continued tO be reborn ln order tO protect and rums of Angkor in Cambodia, and it was Borobudur's guide those who languished on lower levels of spiritual discovery that first made Europeans aware of the high development. Those who believed in bodhisattvas level Of civilization which had been attained in anclent southeast ASia. ThiS raised numerous questlons which preached that man should not seek personal salvation, for that would be selfish. lnstead they taught that the greatest still persist today, more than 1 乃 years later. How did the virtue lay in becomlng a bodhisattva WhO sacrificed indi- Buddhist faith spread to Java from its homeland in lndia vidual happiness for the welfare of others. ln anclent tlmes—a distance Of over 5 , 000 kilometers? Two Paths to SaIvation As Buddhism spread through Why did the Javanese, rather than any of the other peo- lndia, bodhisattvas became mcreasingly popular. New ples in the vast area where Buddhism was practiced, build scriptures appeared, givmg more details about them and the largest and most elaborate Buddhist monument the exploring their links with various buddhas. Some follow- world has ever known? ers began to distinguish their beliefs from the simpler ver- Buddhism in lndia and Beyond sron of Buddhism, calling their path Mahayana, the 。 Greater Way" or "VehicIe. " They deprecatingly termed Buddhism originated in lndia more than a thousand years 1 れ ore ngorous and individualistic teachings Hinayana, before the constructlon of Borobudur. Siddharta the "Lesser VehicIe. " Although these two doctrines can Gautama4—later known as Buddha or "the Awakened be differentiated in theory, in practice early Buddhism One"—w ・ as born at the fOOt Of the Himalaya mountams around 500 B. c. He was a member 0f the Sakya ethnic combined both. A verslon of Mahayana Buddhism sometimes called group; thus he is often called Sakyamuni, Jewel of the Esoteric Buddhism began to appear around A. D. 600. Sakya People. "5 This form of Buddhism asserts that certaln qualified peo- Word of the new path to spiritual salvation which he 召 0 川み ud 諸訪記り〃 . Ⅳ訪 g あ 7 8 を 0 襯 4 戸厩 0 〃 Dagi 〃辺 , ) 00 襯 e ハ 〃の・で立 0 / 訪 e 襯 0 〃な襯 e 厩 . ん the / e. 尹を - g 川〃イな 4 g44 〃立 4 e (dvarapala) given ん〃 g C あ 4 あ〃 g た 0 翔 7896 , 訪〃 0 , 豆 5 the Ⅳあ〃記 M 襯 , 召れ〃 g た 0 た . 18 HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

and most are beautiful or handsome; those which ar ・ ugly or fearsome are aISO humorous or humble. The impact of the first gallery is particularly grea becaus lt contains four serles Of reliefs—two large one above the Other on the maln wall, and tWO smalle ones on the balustrade. Every scene is divided from th next by decoratlve pilasters and ornate scrollwork, eac one umque, with bases formed by a wide assortment 0 objects, people, and animals. Above the upper edge of the outer balustrade, the rea walls of the niches in which the buddha statues S1t are ible. Those on the first balustrade are decorated with, crowning motif representing a jewel, while the niches 0 】 the upper galleries are decorated with small stupas. The reliefs are arranged so that as one ascends th ・ monument, the stories become more complicated abstract. The upward physical progress of the pilgrim 1 thus itself a symbolic progress from the "world of illu S10n" to one of knowledge and enlightenment. FabIes and FairytaIes The two series of smaller relief on the balustrade (outer wall) of the first gallery depic popular Buddhist stories from collections known a ノ 4t4 た 4 ゞ and 4 ワ 4 イ 4 〃 45 concermng the prevlous lncarna tions of people who later became buddhas. The lowe galleries are not straight, but trace four right-angle bends serles on the maln or lnner wall alSO contams ノ 4 ー 4 た 4 on each side. As pilgrims f0110W the reliefs, walking 404d4 〃 4 tales. A11 Of these are entertallllng storles, muc like Aesop's fables or fairytales. The reliefs on th clockwise around with the monument always on their right, the journey is thereby enlivened by frequent balustrade altogether comprise 500 panels of SIZes. Those on the top row are smaller (either 62 cen changes Of directlon WhiCh prevent one from obtaining a tlmeters square or 100 x 62 centlmeters) than those on th V1ew Of the corridor extending for any great distance. MOSt reliefs must be seen up close, from no further than bottom ( 260 x 65 centimeters). The Life of Sakyamuni The upper series of reliefs 0 】 the width of the gallery, although the reliefs at the corners the maln wall of the first gallery is more abstract. lt illus can be seen れ farther a は y,. trates the life story of Gautama Buddha according to a tex As one approaches the corner, a panel topped by trian- called the カ 4 / 4 ワ立 4 4. This story introduces the viewe gular ornaments called antefixes may be seen. Water to more elaborate expressions of Buddhist ideas. Th ・ spouts placed here are shaped like 襯 4 た on the lowest panels, which begin on the south (left) side of the easterl level, but at the upper levels, KaIa-Iike faces are used. Above these is a statue of a buddha in a niche, flanked by stan-way, total 120 (each measuring 276 x 80 centlmeters). The Quest for W1sdom At the end of the first gallery pilasters crowned by human figures called ga 〃お who pilgrims arrive back at the eastern stalrs and then hold up 襯 4 た with their hands. A Kala head appears to the second gallery. Here are found two series of reliefs in the center of the arch above the buddha statue. On the outer wall are depicted more ノ 4 4 た 4 ゞ and 4 ワ 4 ・ Entering the first gallery, we plunge headlong into a イ 4 〃 in 100 panels 0f two sizes ( 190 x 55 centimeters an( world of myth. Hundreds of images appear wearing cos- 85 x 55 centimeters). The inner wall of this gallery con tumes, posturing amid buildings and trees, doing things tams panels that begin tO reveal what may be referred t( which seem important but are difficult tO interpret. The as Borobudur's main theme"—the example of the pil scenes frequently portray situatlons rather than actlons. grim Sudhana wh0 visited 110 teachers in his endeavor t( Without further explanation it IS usually impossible to become a bodhisattva, and who was finally admitted decipher what is going on. The effect of these crowded the palace 0f Maitreya on the summit of Mt. sumeru. Th scenes IS not frightening, however. The faces are serene 42 ARCHITECTURE AND SYMBOLISM 7 方 4 立 ga 能リ可、召の℃み〃 d 盟 : Once the が / ー g 襯 e 〃亡 e CO ツイ 0 ハ CO 〃〃 2 g ーに 角厖な c 。襯が e り cut 9 〃、。襯 the ト c 孕ルれ ew 可、訪い 4 % .

m1SS10nar1es ln eighth century Java, including bOth Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, who met in Java in A. D. 718 before proceeding to China to spread the "Way of the Thunderbolt. " Thunderbolts in Java Bronze handbells with thunderbolt handles found in Java sometlmes have plain handles. 7 More complex examples have four heads placed between the bell's body and the five prongs of the thunderbolt. 8 Some examples are more complex; one bell made of a bronze-silver alloy in central Java during the late eighth century has five prongs, a blue lotus, and four heads beneath four symbols in relief: a thunderbolt, a jewel, and a red lotus. The fourth symbol has been effaced, but would have been a four-ended thunderbolt. These are sym- bols of the four buddhas associated with Vairocana. The most complicated example of such a bell has four heads and eight symbols: four for the buddhas and four for the attendant bodhisattvas.10 A few such artifacts are alSO known frOI れ east Java. Bronze statues Of Diamond 、々 ) rld deities are more C01 れ mon still. Ninety bronze statues were dis- covered near Nganjuk, East Java, where they had been hidden, probably to preserve them from some danger. They must have belonged t0 an elaborate three-dimensional mandala. They depict numerous figures who do not appear at Borobudur, but are specified in the Diamond World mandala, such as female bodhisattvas who hold flowers, an mcense burner, and a lute. The lmage in the group has four faces. According to the D 襯 0 〃イ S 〃襯襯 the Supreme Buddha Vairocana has on one face, and he is always shown thus in China and Japan. The N / 平 4 〃〃 4 ブ 0g4 ワ 4 〃 describes a four-faced Vairocana and statues in Tibet and Nepal show him in this form. bronzes are ln a style made t , 0 or three cen- turies after Borobudur. Thus they d0 not directly enlighten us concerning the use Of mandalas in Boro- budur's time. ln addition to the 90 found at Nganjuk, Other examples have been discovered in bOth central and east Java. some lmages depict Vairocana himself, sometlmes in the characteristic み 0 イ ) ag 襯イ 4 in which the two hands are held in front of the chest, right above left, with the left forefinger held in the palm of the right. A gilt bronze example was discov- ered at Sidorejo, central Java. 12 There are alSO statues Of Vairocana's aspect, VaJradatvisvar1. 150 APPENDIX Another Diamond World deity was 協ノな比 04 , "Diamond Being. " His statues show him holding a thunderbolt in his right hand, a bell in his left, resting against his hip, with an elephant's head in the base. He personified the buddha consclousness contained in a11 beings and objects and embodied the 37 "Diamond World Knowledges"; his thunderbolt and bell symbolize these, for they are the signs of the first and last of the 32 bodhisattvas in the Maya mandala, one of eight sub-mandalas of the Diamond World. Vajrapani ("Diamond Holder") IS an lmportant denizen of the Diamond World. One of the most unusual statues ever found in lndonesia depicts vaJra- pam a guise known as Dharmapala. This bronze lmage, found in Yogyakarta, 100kS familiar to those acquainted with Tibetan lconography; it ShOWS a V10 ー lent four-headed, eight-armed god holding a bow, goad, discus, etc, standing on t , 0 corpses. These rep- resent VaJrapan1 S VICtory over Siva and Uma. Wrathful gods are rarely depicted in lndonesla, although 〇 ld Balinese texts describe deities in this forr れ . Diamond World texts devote much space tO describing how enemies of the faith were defeated. ln Tibet such wrathful forms became much more influ- ential and popular. ln China, Amoghavajra became lmperial Preceptor" in the eighth century and called upon the aid of Diamond World gods to help con- quer living enenues of the kingdom, particularly Tibetans and Arabs. The paired forms of wrathful deities, showing them ln sexual intercourse, were popular in Tibet but non-exlstent in lndonesla. Perhaps the serene and faithful Javanese did not require demonic or lustful deities, for they had al- ready overcome these obstacles tO enlightenment. The Supreme Buddha was symbolized in different forms ln various levels Of 〃な 4. The first level used Amitayus/Amitabha. ln the second level, Vairocana (-bhisambodhi) in the meditation pose was used. The third level displayed Vairocana, with four faces and holding the discus, with left forefinger ln right fist. The bronze Diamond World gods and thunder- bolts from central Java could all have been made after A. D. 830. But their absence from Borobudur may be due tO Other causes. objects were only necessary for people at lower levels 0f awareness. Perhaps the practices conducted at Borobudur were only meant for people at higher stages of advancement.

ential family known as the Sailendra or "Lords of the Mountain. ' This title clearly indicates that the family claimed an lntlmate relationship with the supernatural power which the Javanese believed hovered around mountalll peaks. 、 cannot no " retrace the individua threads which the Sailendra wove into a tapestry of polit- ical relations stretching all the way fror れ central Java tO Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, but they must have included many people more or less distantly relate rather than a small clan. The SaiIendra became the dominant political family in Java around A. D. 780 , when they displaced another group known as the Sanjaya. The Sanjaya were an older elite whO were devotees Of Hinduism and had been important S1nce at least A. D. 732—the date Of the earliest known lnscrlption tO mentlon a kingdom ln central Java, 111 which a King SanJaya is mentioned. The inscription was found on Mt. Wukir, which lies just ten kilometers to the southeast Of Borobudur. Tension between members Of the Sailendra and SanJaya families must have stemmed fror れ a competltlon for political status, but probably had no effect on reli- g10LIS practlces. Religion been a Of tent10n or conflict among the Javanese. The t , 0 families lntermarried with the result that the children could give their loyalty to either the Sailendra or the Sanjaya. Their ChOice expressed political and SOCial allegiance rather than involuntary membership in a clan determined by genea- The 施臾〃 logical rules. The RevivaI of the Sanjaya ln A. D. 832 the SaiIendra queen, Sri Kahulunan, married a SanJaya known as Rakai Pikatan. Pikatan gave donatlons tO var10LIS Buddhist and 財れれみれな epics were very popular and remam so sanctuarles, including the beautiful Plaosan, but devoted in Java to this day. Ancient kings of Java claimed t0 be his greatest resources and energy tO the constructlon 0 { able to call upon these gods to bring fertility to the soil the stunning Hindu complex at Prambanan that iS known and tO conquer their enemies. Buddhism did, however, have powerful royal patrons and both religions were now as Loro Jonggrang ・ l)ikatan's relgn was not entirely peaceful. lnscriptions linked to two families who formed the ruling elite of and legends allude to war with a Sailendran prince, Javanese society during the Borobudur period: the Balaputra, who aspired to become paramount ruler. The Sanjaya and the Sailendra. prince was defeated and fled tO Sumatra. After about A. D. The meamng of the word "family" in ancient Java 850 the SanJaya held supreme power in Java, and without must be explained. The Javanese have never found it nec- the support of the Sailendra no more great Buddhist essary tO use family names, and Javanese SOCiety does not monuments were built on the island. restr1Ct lts concepts Of inheritance and descent tO a single central Javanese civilization itself did not flouris link, such as that between fathers and sons. lnstead the much longer, lll any case. : N ・ 0 inscrlptlons were carve Javanese trace their 信 mil メ relationships through both after A. D. 928 , nor were any more temples, Buddhist or males and females. GrOLIPS Of kinsmen coalesce around Hindu, built in Kedu after this time. We do not know distinguished forebears while less important ancestors are why the highly accomplished civilization of central Java quickly forgotten ・ came tO a sudden and complete end. Later records refer Buddhism in lndonesla was closely linked to an influ- 24 HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 盟 7 : SUMBINC/ 337 わ宿 . ノ 盟 . E 犬おお 42 川 ME .DUT BOROBUDUR ロロ PA V ON M . M お AP ー 292 ノ加 e ″ 0 なあ〃〃な PLA SAN S W SARI ロ KALASAN ロロ PRAMBAN ー Yogyaka *ta AT 3 ( ) K 〇

ed Of a central sanctuary With one by four smaller chambers. This marn temple was enclose within a wall. Outside the wall were 240 more temples arranged in four concentr1C squares and enclosed second wall. Foundations for eight more temples lay between the second and third squares. At several hundre meters' distance were four more temples, one eac 1 れ aln axis. Huge guardian statues knelt at gateways at each Of the four main directlons. AII the statues from the central temple have vanished, but there are niches for one maln statue in the central room, with one large and six smaller statues ln each Of the four smaller chambers (except on the east where there was 竄 doorway intO the central r00n1 lnstead Of a maln wall). The outer rows O temples have niches for several statues each. This design could have been used to house statues 0 { deities arranged according tO the instructlons for a man- dala. The outer 240 temples may have held images representing the 1 000 Buddhas of the Diamond world diagram, and the central sanctuary could have corre- sponded to the palace occupied by the Supreme Buddha and his four alternative forms with their bodhisattva attendants. The name Of the complex, Sewu, means liter- ally "thousand" and may have referred to the number of Javanese Buddhists, but no manuals survlve tO tell us statues guarding the central sanctuary rather than the about the preclse mandalas used and the way in which number of temples, as IS commonly thought. such concepts lnteracted with the Other symbolic roles Several Other buildings in the Prambanan area 1 れ a which Borobudur played. The answer to the question "ls have been designed as two-storied mandalas, includin Borobudur a mandala?" depends on how one defines the the malll sanctuarles at Plaosan Candi Sari term. TO classify Borobudur as a mandala, it IS not Kalasan. ln each case the upper 日 00r was made of WOO enough tO say that it lOOks like one; we must 引 SO prove and has disappeared. Both employed the system of three that it was used as one. fold Buddhas found at Mendut. At the north end of th 、 ' e will probably never know what ceremonles were Plaosan complex are the remalns Of a group Of statue conducted on the monument, but SO many details Of which lined the entire east side and parts Of the north an BorobL1dur's constructlon are conSIStent With south side Of a pavilion. This is similar tO a system Of 3 concepts that we 1 れ a メ be sure that Borobudur served deities placed in a rectangular mandala at the site Of TabO many Of the same functlons as a mandala. lt was a space North lndia, built 200 years after PIaosan. from which evil forces had been excluded, where gods Candi Mendut has only one story. lts relatively larg could be invited tO descend and take up residence, and single chamber contains three huge statues plus niches fO probably where initlates could be inducted into higher four smaller ones on the walls. Only one of the thre states Of consclousness. large statues can be definitely identified—the bodhisattv MandaIa TempIes in Java At other archaeological Avalokitesvara on the northeast. 、 cannot tell whO th sites there is much clearer evidence tO ShOW that after A. D. Other tWO are meant tO unless ′ discover which man 800 1 れ an メ Buddhist sanctuarles ln central Java were dala Mendut is meant tO represent. remodelled tO conform tO mandala principles, and new Another type of archaeological remain which echoe temples were built specifically as mandalas. lnstructlons for settlng up mandalas are ritual deposlt The most convrnclng case for such a theory has been found beneath many temples in Java, Sumatra and Bali made at Candi Sewu in the Prambanan Plain. After a These deposlts are S01 れ etll れ es found in stone casket maJOr renovatlon in about A. D. 800 , the complex conSISt- diVided intO the preCIOLl を第一 Ⅳ ca イお。川房ィ畴 , / 房 d 房 〃〃れ ge 朝〃 dhyana mudra 0 〃 the あ窺 , 夜・ / れ℃な , vitarka mudra 0 〃ー 02. 52 ARCHITECTURE AND SYMBOLISM

た〃な 4 〃 c に一 0 the 立 4 わ・ , 4 必 ea 豆 d らん ad / 〃 g 。襯 g 川Ⅲ / 師で / れ / た , 房ィ市 fOOt" 0 ノッ e 襯 0 〃〃〃〃た the 立 0 〃 e 〃 case 襯のな CO 〃 cea 〃〃 g the 。あ / d イ e 〃 。ド、のい新、丸を新を県第破 = , 、ム . ,. 46 ARCHITECTURE AND SYMBOLISM Archaeologists discovered large man-made terraces 第 do not know what this building represented. the first three levels of the later Buddhist monument. S1ve stone structure with three levels which correspond tO plateau around a central peak. Then they erected a mas- the hill and carried soil up to the top to form a broad For this monument, workers cut terraces 1ntO the sides of dur's hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. had already begun tO erect a large structure on Borobu- A group of Hindus or adherents of a pre-lndic faith Borobudur was remodeled four times within 50 years. single designer, however, research ShOWS that in fact south of Borobudur. Far from having been the work of a said to be visible in the shape of the Menoreh Hills just divine architect named Gunadharma, whose profile is According to legend, Borobudur was designed by a Architectural History still miSS1ng. all design. lnevitably we find that some of the pieces are together tO reconstruct the logic Of the monument S over- possible, then try tO put these P1eces Of informatlon archaeologist, we must COllect as 1 れ an メ 100Se fragments as forced tO glean what we can from Other sources. Like an Since their manuscripts have not survived, e ln several parts Of Java, some with elaborate stone facing: and upright monolithic slabs. A few were built in prehis tor1C tlmes and might have been used for rituals tO Obtai1 supernatural power frOI れ the ancestors. MOdern eqtllva lents, called 臾〃〃〃 , are still found on hilltops near 01 ( villages and are believed to be sites where village founder were buried. 召 6 ハ訪 d い 4 ("cleaning the village") cere Construct10n thiS hill resumed S01 れ e t11 れ e chose it for their grandest architectural work. have lain abandoned for a few years before the Buddhist: were forcibly evicted from the hill, and the site may ever / 60 or 770. There is no evidence that the first builder: activity took place, though it was probably around A. D we determine the precise date when the initial remodeling obliterated many of its details. Neither car lntended since they never completed their work, and late We shall never know what the orlginal architect: ered more Javanese than Buddhist or Hindu. this earlier foundation, and it may therefore be consid unusual form is partly due tO the need tO accommodat( any in later Hindu and Buddhist shrines. Borobudur' The first builders left foundations which are unlik( ences with the ancestors' help. momes are traditionally held in them to purge evil influ tral Java have been lOSt tO 1 れ a ] renovatlons carrlec MOSt traces of the earliest Buddhist structures ln cen- C1rcumambulating a statue placed in a central chamber. walkway where people could perform the ceremony 0 Other temples during this periOd tO include an enclosec ment. This is cons1Stent with the remodeling Of many broad elevated walkway all around the foot of the monu- artistry. By widening the base, the workers created . now called the "hidden foot" were carved with grex than the lower part, even though the reliefs of what the upper portion of the building t0 be more lmportan the 01d wall. This suggests that the builders considerec hacked off so new stones could be stacked tightly agams base. and S01 れ e ing the whole series 0f newly-carved reliefs on the origl• lnstead they chose tO widen the base. This meant sacrific ・ plan simply by reducing the height of the monument, bu The designers could have compromised their orlglna it suddenly collapsed. port the great weight of the building and some sections 0 disaster struck. The foundation proved t00 weak tO sup began carving the relief panels that we see today. Ther orlginal structure. Masons added walls and sculptor: ShOW that five more storles were added on top Of th< A. D. / 80. Enough remalns of the earlier foundation t(