fully deprived of both. The story continues on the next temple, dedicated tO the second member Of the Hindu trinity, Brahma. On a third temple, dedicated to Vishnu, are reliefs depicting the life of Vishnu in hiS incarnatlon as Krishna. The East Javanese Period No important temples Of the early east Javanese period have been discov- ered. After central Javanese civilization vanished, several centuries passed monuments were built in east Java. By this time Javanese religion had undergone important changes. The gap between the elite and the commoners seems to have been much wider in east Java; many temples may have been meant mainly as places for the nobility tO con- duct secret rituals. The forms of architecture and sculpture had evolved far from those in central Java. AImost all the east Javanese temples were built of brick instead Of the basaltic stone which the central Javanese chose as their principal building material. are symmetrical complexes east Java like Loro Jonggrang or Sewu, but there are large lrregular temple groups such as the one at Panataran, near Blitar. Many of these temples were built as memorials dedicated tO specific deceased rulers. There is no evidence that such beliefs had been promment ln central Java. One Of the few stone temples built in east Java was erected at Singhasari, near Malang, ln memory Of the assassinated last ruler of that kingdom; his body was never found. Others Of brick are scattered over the valleys of the Brantas and S010 Rivers. The greatest kingdom to appear ln pre-lslamic lndonesla was named Majapahit. During the 14th century Majapahit claimed suzeralnty over an area larger than modern lndonesia. Two types of temples were built in Majapahit. One type is found at such lowland sites as Trowulan (the capital), Jago, Kidal and Jawi. The forms of these temples are generally similar to the Hindu temples of central Java. The other type of temple was built on the upper slopes of mountams, Where esoteric forms Of worship tOOk place. Examples include Sukuh and Cetoh on Mt. Lawu, and numerous complexes on such east Javanese mountams as Penanggungan, Ringg1t, ArJuna and Argapura. These simpler sanctuanes were wooden pavilions. Their maJOr structures were simply stone terraces, with three tO seven levels ascending the mountainside toward the peak, with one tO three altars on the topmost terrace. we can still detect a faint echO Of Borobudur in this terraced form, even though the rituals performed at these S1tes would have seemed completely foreign to an lndian. ln spite Of the fact that the statuary at these S1tes ShOWS no trace Of the grace and serenity Of the cen- tral Javanese examples, the terraced form Of these monuments may indicate that a faint 1 れ emor メ Of Borobudur persisted. Meanwhile, trees and volcanic ash were gradually drawing their shroud over the site and Borobudur was sleeping the long sleep which would only end when Cornelius arrived in 1814. APPENDIX B The Ⅳ可 M s The Matrix WorId or Dharma Dhatu Mandala According tO the 外イ 4 4 ワ 4 0C4 〃 4 scrlpture, the dia- gram drawn on the ground With COlored powder was tO be divided intO 81 squares, organized in concentrlc groups—nlne in the center, then outer rings Of 16 , 24 and 32. On the first day, the master of the ceremony performed a ritual to awaken the gods who occupied the space where the diagram was tO be set up, ln order tO Obtain their aSSIStance. On the third day he dug a small hole in the ground into which he put five preclous materials, five fragrant things,l five medi- C1nes, and five grams, all in small contalners Of porce- lain, gold or silver. The hole was then filled, and on top Of it an lnltlatlon vase was placed with five more gems, perfumes, medicines, and grains. Sandalwood powder was used tO mark critical locatlons—the places where images of buddhas and bodhisattvas should be put. On the fifth day Mt. Sumeru was invoked and certain buddhas and bodhisattvas were lnvited tO come 1ntO the diagram. The space inside its bound- arles was then believed safe from all evil influence. On the seventh day the initlate was glven water to drink, symbolizing his thirst for Awakening and his desire to become a buddha. The ritual concluded when the initlate was presented with various objects, 77 / ど WO 犬 D OFMANDALAS 147

ヴツ第 ス〃〃〃訪げ可ツ e 叩んわで g 4 襯 4 〃防 0 な丑 They 〃 74 め age あわ〃れ〃 d み〃 g 0 みな襯の 2 な 4 〃 d 〃市朝 2 巳 The / イい e 襯嚀 d 孕 the 在・ d or 5 〃訪み e 40 あちみな the 2 c な e 〃 4 レで 0 / the 在 , al ・イな〃〃 c / e の : 4 〃 e / 0 79 ) one relief men are shown fighting and in the next panel they are shown atoning for their S1n in the Sanjiva hell where they tear at each Other with bare hands that have lron nails while a bird with a metal beak attacks them. The murder of innocents is repaid in Raurava hell, where the criminals are impaled on the metallic thorns of huge trees. Those WhO C0n11 lt matricide are punished in the Avichi hell. The killing of animals is punished with similar severity. Hunters of birds are condemned to walk through the 'Sword Tree Forest" where leaves drop from trees as daggers and stab them. As punishment for cooking fish 66 THE RELIEFS and turtles, the COOkS are thrown lnto a cauldron in th( Pratapana hell. Flayers of sheep are condemned to hav their heads sawn through in the KaIasutra hell. Eve smoking rats from their hQle is a sm, punished by bein crushed between huge rocks in the Samghata hell. There is a system of sub-hells also, where S1nners wall on grass-like spears or through burning water, or ar trampled by elephants for vanous misdeeds. There ar alSO punishments in the form Of rebirth as birds, four footed animals, or ghouls. The depictions of the different heavens are not nearl) SO elaborate. These are nearly identical and each represen ・

APPENDIX A S 〃可 04 〃 e Art Those vlsltors to Borobudur whO will not have an opportumty tO VIS1t 1 れ ore than a few temples in cen- tral Java will be deprived of the chance of seeing the posltion Borobudur occupies in the broader world Of early Javanese art and civilization. HardIy any Javanese works of art can be dated. A mere handful Of monuments and sculptures have dates lnscribed on them. 、 lOSt Of the m 円 or sites Of Borobudur's periOd were excavated in the early twentieth century before archaeologists began tO apply scientific techniques in their exploratlons. Monuments and statues were unearthed without any proper records Of their preclse relationship tO one another or to the different layers of soil. Without these details we cannot hope tO reconstruct the his- tory Of Javanese artwith any accuracy. Thus we are forced to fall back upon less precise and reliable methods tO estlmate the dates Of works of art. Buddhist and Hindu Javanese art IS usually divided intO tWO periods: the central Java periOd, between A. D. 700 and 900 , and the east Java period, which lasted from 900 until 1500. Thereafter Javanese art entered the lslamic phase. Most of the temples and sculptures of the central Javanese periOd are found in the interior Of the island between the Dieng Plateau in the west and Mt. Lawu in the east, but there are a few examples several hun- dred kilometers further east. The extant examples of central Javanese art were mostly used for religious purposes. The principal exceptions are large numbers of gold jewelry: rings for fingers, toes, and ears, headdresses, necklaces, hair ornaments and cords for the waist and chest. AII these, including a gold mer- chant's shop, can be seen on the reliefs Of Borobudur. There are Other monuments with architectural forms like Borobudur's on the Asian mainland, but lronically there are no Others in lndonesia. lt seems that the Javanese were content with one such struc- ture. The other buildings which remain from the cen- tral Javanese periOd are more conventional in that they contaln rooms tO house cult ObJectS, perhaps tO hide them from profane eyes. Buddhist TempIes The 0n1 メ two ancient temples 146 APPENDIX left standing near Borobudur are Mendut and Pawon. BOth were built around the same tlme as Borobudur, but each has a different shape. pawon is small and has windows—an unusual feature found in few surVIVing Javanese temples—but no narratlve reliefs. Mendut is very large and houses the three biggest Buddhist statues preserved intact on Java. lts stalr walls are decorated with narratlve reliefs fror れ the 召 & 0 い . ln the Prambanan PIain, the best-preserved Bud- dhist temples are Kalasan, sari, Sewu and plaosan. A11 are decorated on the exterlor with carvings of bodhisattvas, but have no narratlve reliefs. sari and l)laosan pr0VISion for a second inter10t• story with a wooden f100r , but it has since disappeared. AII onginally consisted Of one malll sanctuary ()r in Plaosan s case two) surrounded by many smaller temples and stupas, but at Kalasan and Sari the sub- sidiary buildings have disappeared. Hindu TempIes Except for the great Loro Jong- grang complex at Prambanan, the Hindu temples of central Java are smaller in size, 1 れ than the Buddhist temples. They span a longer periOd as well, from the late seventh tO the late ninth century. Whereas the Buddhist temples are concen- trated in the two broad plains in the middle of the island, near the probable centers of royal power, many of the Hindu temples are located in relatively remote areas and were probably built by 10Ca1 authorities. The HindL1 architects formulated a stan- dard plan at an early stage, which they followed later with minor varlatlons in bOth small and great 1 れ onu ー ments. The central cult object was usually a linggum, a phallic symbol of Siva, although at Loro Jonggrang the main cult Object was a statue Of Siva. Around him were placed statues Of the teacher Agastya on the south and Durga, the female essence Of Siva, in the act of slaying the bull demon on the north. The entrance tO the temple might be either on the east or west; opposlte the entrance was an lmage Of Ganesha, Siva's elephant-headed son, who helped men tO overcome obstacles. Among all the Hindu temples of central Java, only the Loro Jonggrang complex had a series Of narratlve reliefs. These begin on the main temple, where they depict the 犬 4 襯 4 〃 4 ー the story of Rama's attempt tO regain his throne and his wife after he iS wrong-

The Mahakarmavibhangga Ⅵ 0 可 r ケ Desire tO Buddhism and is among its Oldest scriptures, lt was EFORE THE BROAD FOOT WAS ADDED TO BORO- copied many tlmes and was subject tO many 10Ca1 inter- budur, a series Of reliefs は S ViSible frOI れ outside pretatlons. The verSIOn Of the text WhiCh the Borobudur the 1 れ onur れ ent. These were located JLISt above art1Sts used was probably rather different from any which the ground and served as moral lessons tO pil- survlves tOday,. grims, depicting men and women performing both good The ReIiefs The Ma あ 4 た襯 4 ワルあ 4 〃 gga reliefs en- and evil deeds and then being rewarded and punished in compass more than 160 panels, each measuring about tWO hell or heaven for their actlons. meters wide and 67 centlmeters hlgh. They were discovered These themes are still popular in traditional Asian art. by accident in 1885 , and a complete photographic record Similar scenes are illustrated in a famous series Of paint- was made in 1890 ー 91. Thereafter they were covered up agam mgs on the ceiling 0f the Kertagosa Hall 0f Justice 0f the and have not been seen S1nce, With the exception Of four kingdom 0f Klungkung in Bali, which dates from the panels at the southeastern corner Of the monument which eighteenth or mneteenth century. They are also vividly were re-exposed by cunous members Of the Japanese occu- portrayed in an extraordinary set Of artificial grottoes ln pation forces of the early 1940S , which may still be seen the Tiger Balm Gardens of the Haw Par Villa in Singa- there today. The panels follow a standard format—they pore, constructed in the 1930S. first depict an action, then show its reward or pumshment. The Text Mahayana Buddhism possesses several texts The hidden reliefs depict various hells and heavens which describe at length the effects of specific actlons. from Buddhist mythology. There are eight hot hells. ln he text which the designers of Borobudur illustrated in these reliefs was a verslon Of a Sanskrit work as the Ma あ 4 た襯 4 ワル 4 〃 gga or "Great Classification of Ct10ns. " None Of the extant verslons, however, IS exactly the same as that illustrated on Borobudur. ln fact the orobudur depictlons vary more fror れ known textual verslons than any Other reliefs on the monument. This is not difficult tO account for. The texts that have een preserved—Sanskrit, Pali' Tibetan' Chinese and Kuchean from CentraI Asia—are all in the form of a ser- mon given by Buddha, which consists largely 0f a techni- cal discourse on the doctrme Of cause and effect. A translation Of this text mtO pictures was certainly not easy tO accomplish and S01 れ e artistic license was probably nec- essary. AISO, S1nce the text is Of fundamental importance T 厖ル Mahakarmavibhanggapane な。なルん ー 0d4 ) at the 504 [ あ ea e 〃 CO 〃 e 0 召 0 0 み - dur ca れ〃厖が 4 記ツ訪化れ 4 り , 4 〃 d we ca 〃 0 れり give 20 ルんのアア eta 0 〃 s. Opposite: ス 2 Ⅲでイ co 厩 e 厩襯 e 厩 . ス川 ) couple ツ訪訪〃 d , 4 な e れ d り gu の法 , た 04 〃な , 4 〃 d 4 襯 0 訪 ed 4d0 なの : 4 〃 e / 0.2 の Left: D 4 〃。襯訪 e 万立 e ル e の記 24 〃冰 . ア厖 / イこ房グ訪な 24 / な訪。 , 〃。〃 the ル″。 , gpag 巳 4 / 0.79 ) をい 65 7 ・〃石 M 月〃ス K 月火 M ス V / B 〃月 NGG 月

Yijing was impressed by the flourishing condition of Buddhism in Srivijaya at this time, by its large commum ・ - ty of monks and the high standard of Buddhist scholar- ship practiced there—so much so that he urged other Buddhist pilgrims to spend time in SriviJaya ln order to lmprove their Sanskrit there before proceeding tO lndia. He SO noticed that sumatran Buddhism possessed some umque characteristics. The 女たの〃れ or "GarIand of Birth Stories " was chanted out loud, and prayers were offered to 〃 ag ("serpent deities") and other spirits dur- ing fasting ceremomes. Yijing gwes accounts of many other Chinese pilgrims WhO went tO study in lndonesia. Besides sanskrit, they also learned the vernacular language ・ Some found life so congenial there that they remained behind permanently. At least one Of Yijing s contemporaries forsook monast1C life completely and married an lndoneslan, thus becom- ing the first known Chinese tO emigrate tO lndonesla. lndonesia also attracted Buddhist scholars from lndia. YiJing reports that monks from Sichuan and Tonkin went tO Java in order tO study under a famous lndian teacher. One of the most important Buddhist thinkers of the eighth century, Vajrabodhi, was born in Kanci, South lndia, around A. D. 6 / 0. He studied and perhaps revised t " 0 texts, the イ 4 4 ワ 4 〃・ 0C4 〃 4 or Vail*OCana within a century Of one another, between A. D. 750 and ス市ツ〃 g イ召。川房Ⅲ・り F.C. Ⅳ〃〃ト g の〃 ca. 78 ) 0. / 厩げ〃 g c ん Scripture" and the 協ノた 4 な or "Diamond Crown 850. Buddhism remained the principal religion ln the 4 あ 04 覊の卍ガれ g 叩 the “厩 / 立 Scripture," bOth Of which became very lmportant in Java. Sumatra for a much longer period. ln 1013 a 31-year-old 4 〃イ the 戸 0 なな / な 0 / 石 0 臾 ea 〃 4 〃イ / れ 0 れ〃い e Young Vajrabodhi received supernatural instructlons tO lndian named Atisa who had been ordained in lndia trav- 0 おな 0 ハ the 〃 70 〃 I イ〃 7 夜なー / ら egro 〃 d. spread these texts to China. He sailed to Sumatra in 717 eled tO Srivijaya in order tO study with a famous teacher. then continued on tO Java. He was still in Java in 718 Atisa stayed in Srivijaya for 20 years, and then in 1038 at when he met a 14-year-old Sri Lankan monk named the age 0f 56 , he was mvited to Tibet where he became Amoghavajra whO had come tO Java on a trading visit known as Dipankara SriJnana, and is credited with with his uncle. Amoghavajra became Vajrabodhi's pupil reshaping Tibetan Buddhism before his death in 1054. and accompanied him t0 China in 719. A text found in Tibet known as the 4 Durgati They stayed in China until Vajrabodhi's death in 741. 臾の云 0 渤れ〃 4 or "Eliminat10n of all Evil Rebirths" is quite Amoghavajra then made another trip t0 Java, where he distinct from usual Tibetan works. At least one expert collected new scrlptures tO take back tO China and trans- suspects lt came from SriviJaya. Even tOday Tibetan late intO Chinese. Amoghavajra attracted disciples in Buddhism seems to reflect some anclent lndoneslan China, one of whom, Huiguo ( / 46 ー 805 ) , continued his beliefs and practices ・ teachings. Among Huiguo s pupils were a Javanese Buddhism in Java known to us as Bianhung, and a Japanese, K0b0 Daishi, who later founded the Shingon or "True Word" sect of Buddhism was not ln a calm, stable state during the Buddhism in Japan. SchoIars believe that Shingon and eighth and ninth centurles when Borobudur was built. ancient Javanese Buddhism are closely related. Certainly On the contrary, this was a period of intense intellectual lndoneslan and Shingon statues share many similarities. activity. Buddhists had high hopes for their religion, and Partly as a result of cultural contacts fostered by pil- held in high esteem those philosophers who advanced grims such as these, Buddhism enjoyed a short but new religious theories and methods. Each teacher and lntense period 0f popularity in central Java. AII known each country where new forms of Buddhism were devel- Buddhist temples there, including Borobudur, were built oped evolved some special interpretatlons Of the religion. 7 訳 , 4D た火、 4ND P 〃 . G 火 / 盟、 21 1

the monument. Ancient pilgrims performed their cere- monial circumambulations here, and a serles Of carvlngs set all along the outer wall of the gallery above (which archaeologists call the balustrade) were placed there so as to be clearly seen from the walkway. These depict celes- tial beings and guardian demons, as well as jewel trees. vases, conch shells, and other motifs—all symbolizing that the area within the lowest balustrade wall iS protect- ed and holy. AtOP the balustrade, each set intO its own niche, arc Buddha statues measuring 106 centimeters in height that gaze lmpassively outward from each Of the monument four sides. There were originally 104 such statues on th€ first level, followed by 104 more on the second level, 88 on the third, 72 on the fourth, and 54 on the top. Many are nOW m1SS1ng. The GaIleries A third flight of steps leads from th€ walkway up to the first level, with its gallery of magnifi- cently-carved stone walls on either side. Although visi- tors can enter the gallery from any Of the four maln stalrways, one on each Side Of the monument, anclent pil- grms coming tO study the reliefs would first have used the eastern stairs, for it is here that the stories tOld in th( relief panels begin. Each of Borobudur's four lower levels contains such illustrating a scene from a Buddhist scripture on heaven and hell known as the 4 房た襯れワル房〃 gg . The base panelled gallery. The four trace concentric square paths was decorated with a graceful curved molding and several around the monument, each smaller than the one belosxv square projections. AII 0f these embellishments, including it, SO that when seen from above they form four concen- the carved panels themselves, had to be sacrificed when tric ト oxe 、 The first gallery is 88 meters long on eac the origmal base Of the monument proved t00 narrow tO side, so that to walk all the way around the first leve) involves a journey Of about 360 meters. The second support it and collapsed. The entire base was then en- gallery measures over 320 meters all around; the third cased within a new and much broader but unadorned 288 meters and the fourth 256 meters. Thus 竄 complet( mantle Of stones. The original base and its decorations cifctiit Of all four galleries covers distance Of about 1. (the so-called 得 de れ foot") were 0 れ ly discovered in kilometers or three-quarters Of mile. 1885 , and portion 0 麕 t has been left exposed at the The first gallery contains four series of reliefs—two or southeastern corner Of the monument. Here the moldings the Otiter or balustrade W 引 1 ( 0 れ e upper and 0 れ e lower, and four of the relief panels may トい ee れ・ and t オ 0 on the inner or れ 1a1 れ TO see them consecu- ln the middle of each of the four sides of the monu- tively the ViSItor must therefore walk around the firsi ment 10 れ g い tr t & t 呼 leads 伝 om the ground 訓 gallery four times ト e 信代 climbing to the next level. Thc the tO the uppermost terrace Of the strtiCtUfe, climb CO れ d , third, れ d fourth galleries each have tWO series Od 0 伝 0 ⅲ e 26 meters. The steps t0 the first level are divided reliefs, SO tO See them in sequence the ViS1tor must t0 three short 価 ts ・ At ground level to the right and 社 0 Ⅱれ d each level twice. TO see 引 1 the reliefs in their cor- 1 言 t the steps are statues of mythical 膸ぉ t & called rect order,. , pilgrims must consequently walk around 加 4 ん 4 な 9 with 石 0 れ 9 ーれ their mouths. At the end 0 ー the れ 10 れⅡれれ t ten tlmes, covermg tOtaI distance Of nearly バ t flight these become more 信れ C 孖 ul monster heads. The sides the 記 co れ d flight of steps 膸 g vo ん t five kilometers (three miles). These galleries give the viS1tor feeling rather likc With triangular CO れ 1 れ 10 れれ 10t 孖 in Javanese art. being 1 れ corridor that iS about t , 0 meters At the top 0 ー these steps lies れ elevated, four-meter- high walls 0 れ either side and only the sky overhead. Th( wide walkway that 加れ 9 訓 the way around the 膸 of 40 ARCHITECTURE AND SYMBOLISM や、 Above: ス〃 4 げ / e 在 , イお oro 房ィハ“〃 . 〃 0 the 〃 0 ん V な 0 0 〃 the 〃戸臾 e な 4 化 c 〃パれ 0 〃〃イ 4 立〃 2 れ CO 〃ーれ / 〃 / 〃 g the 立 4 ″尾 た〃 0 ぉ Kakek Bima, , ん訪な c た市ノら ーみ / 40 れ〃お e ″みみ 0 g ec / 20 , e . OPPOSite: 7 切 e oro 房ィ 7 方 e 襯れ〃一 ぬ / 小雇 e 翔 e mo 襯を厩なィ市 0 / e 〃ーの e 〃 e 〃秀 0 襯ーみな 2 の・ e 朝わを . み 0 加みな石第房ゞイな 0 / たク〃み厖〃 00m - 第れたノ 4 / 0 ~ 〃ら〃ツ the ーみと CO 〃化〃けた〃 g ゞ 20 れ厖 4 滝イア 0

the reliefs devote such a disproportlonate amount Of space This is unlikely. lt is more probable that ritual initia• to the last episodes of the Ga 〃ぬりあ These and other t10n ceremomes conducted on the monument itself or ir problems will contlnue tO lntrlgue scholars and visitors pavilions which once StOOd on a plateau tO the northwes' for a long t11 れ e tO come. ()r perhaps alSO in the living quarters at the southwesterr The placement of the reliefs on Borobudur forms foot of the hill) qualified pilgrims to proceed to each another subject for inquiry ・ ln general they progress from stage. NO doubt initlates would have been required tc concrete tO abstract ln terms Of subject matter. The 10W ー demonstrate a certain fluency in the precepts tO whic est series Of reliefs, no 嶬 " concealed, depiCtS graphic scenes they had been exposed on the lower levels in order to b( of punishment and reward, while the highest portrays admitted tO the upper ones, but these questlons woulc unidentified assemblies Of celestial beings. The contrast is have been formalities tO which devotees responded witl ・ qulte striking, and the intellectualleap from the subject memorlzed answers. matter of the lowest gallery to the highest is considerable. The gateways on the first t " 0 galleries were not par ・ Of the monument's orlginal plan. The 襯 4 た 4 as whicl lt is likely, therefore, that not every pilgrim who began by studying the た on the balustrade of the first decorate them hide parts Of the narratlve reliefs. The neM gallery would have been capable of understanding the gateways may have been added purely as decoration, bu elevated doctrlnes expressed on the 1 れ aln wall Of the 1 れ ore likely those in charge Of the monument at this timc decided tO emphasize the transltlons frOl れ one level t( fourth gallery. Were the gateways decorated with た記の another. The gateways were not, however, equipped witl and 〃 74 た 4 45 separatlng these levels entrances for some doors that might blOCk one's entrance tO a higher level but barriers tO others ? ・ Were there examlnatlons which aspirants had to pass before being allowed to ascend to a and thus they are symbolic rather than physical barriers The stairways and gates on all four sides of the monu ・ higher terrace ? ス〃 0 みん襯 4 〃んおア ) の 2 4 0 , れ g 川可 bearded ア〃 e 〃 sea イゞ 4 み〃 7 な 0 にりみ e 〃 ea ーあ 4 わで e , zn 4 〃〃乞 de 〃々 ed e 〃 e 万・ 0 襯 the avadana / ゐ 0 〃 the 襯 az 〃 , れ〃 0 / e 立 ga ス g 川イ g 厖襯 e 〃 , 紡叩 s お , ん磋。〃。襯 the ん尹 . 乃℃房屍 ) , 。イ e の - d 襯 e 〃市 4 〃イな co 襯襯 e 襯 0 d り the 4 5 “〃 the 〃け砿研訪 4 立イ訪 e 覊〃い , g あ 0 〃 0 d り 0 ″のツ〃 g 立ア厖訪げ 厖 the 立 4. ゆ 4 / /. 房 79 ) 62 THE RELIEFS

arger design, and in order tO understand Borobudur we need tO solve the riddle Of the monument's structure. Deciphering the Code lt would be incorrect to call Borobudur a temple. Javanese lnscriptions refer : 0 religious edifices as 臾れ 54 イ 4 , Of WhiCh there were sev- 2ral categories. We do not know precisely how they dif- ered, but ceremonles and symbolism varied significently lmong them. 、 lOSt ancient Javanese temples contained a 「 00m where special objects of worship were kept, but the tooms were t00 small tO allOW more than a few individu- 11S inside at one t11 れ e. perhaps 0n1 メ priests entered the :emples. For the laiety Of ancient lndonesia the religious structure itself was the icon, which they honored by walking around without entering. Borobudur is the only survivlng monument of its type n Java. Other Buddhist structures have rooms and were esigned tO house lcons. Borobudur's design IS SO differ- fror れ these that it seems logical to conclude that its urpose alSO differed. lt was not intended as a place tO 物 ow devotion to the buddhas, but rather as a place to chieve the practical end of becoming a bodhisattva. Borobudur expresses a complex message ln a COde that as yet to be cracked, partly because the range of individ- 」 al elements making up the code is so vast. why are there SP1re IS meant tO suggest an earth mound, bubble, or → ix square terraces and four round ones ? Why dO the iches on the bottom balustrade have ajewel motif, while upturned bowl ー - a11 common analogies for the shape of a hose on the upper four balustrades have stupa motif? stupa. If this were true, then the reliefs would simply be hy are the 72 perforated stupas at the top divided into decorations for the stupa's base, which is hardly the case. wo types: one with diamond-shaped holes and square Another well-known theory proposes that Borobudur has a trlpartlte structure representing the three Buddhist 4 〃れ 45 on the t , 0 lower terraces, another with square Oles and octagonal ん 4 / た 45 on the upper terrace? realms Of existence: Desire, Form and Formlessness. But bviously all of these design elements mean something, this, t00 , is probably incorrect. 2 Another speculates that it was designed as a giant mandala or sacred enclosure for ut what c 田 1 it be? These vat"1at1011S were not merely decorative. Like the use ln lnltlatlon rltes. Yet another asserts that the monu- eliefs on the galleries, the upper terraces, statues and stu- ment was above all a symbol of the ro メ al might of the Sailendra rulers. Finally, for some, Borobudur represents as all tell 竄 tale, but in 竄 more abstract way SO that it IS the abode of the gods, sacred Mt. Sumeru S1tuated at the early impossible to know which passage in the huge V01 ー center Of the COSI れ OS. me of Buddhist metaphysical literature they represent. ・ hat is clear is that Borobudur's architectural form ndoubtedly Borobudur's master plan also incorporates had multiple assoclatlons for the ancient Javanese—and number Of concepts which are purely Javanese and not that it would be impossible to disentangle them com- uddhist at a11 , and SO are unrecorded in any Of the texts pletely. Borobudur's design cannot be reduced to a single hat we have. element; rather it combines three prmcipal motifs: 1 れ oun ー Scholars have devoted a great deal of energy to the tain, stup a and mandala. Althou gh each had umque con- earch for a single concept which would explain every notatlons, their symbolism overlapped. Borobudur's spect 0f Borobudur's design. According to one theory, designers succeeded brilliantly in linking the three to cre- he round upper terraces were meant tO forr れ the base for ate an lntegrated, coherent monument. enormous stone stupa WhiCh contained a preC10LlS relic The meaning of Borobudur should ideally be ex- 3f Gautama Buddha. Some have said that a stupa is pressed in the words Of the ancient Javanese themselves. lndeed all that Borobudur is; that its profile, from foot to MONUMEN7 ・ WITH ス M た、、ス G 石 45 The が 4 4 な。〃ん訪 the 川〃〃イ r な c 立 4 〃イ . The 〃 0 〃ゞ , 夜で〃 0 ー 0 〃 g み 24 〃 ) 夜で , わな t 立“イ g 記 the ん / な e 立尾 , 4 厖あ the 襯 0 〃〃 ze 〃れ

いに clouds ( II. 73 ) , a buddha flanked by four bodhisattvas sit- agadha. TWO S1t ln a mandala surrounding Vairocana, ting on lotuses ( Ⅱ .74 ) , teaching ()l 、乃), and being wor- 0 m a mandala around Buddha, who the scripture says vairocana S manifestatlon in human form. At one P0111t shipped ( II. 76 ). Sudhana reappears, and then begins a dhana ascends t0 the "Heaven of the 33 Kings" t0 see a second sequence Of visits tO GOOd Friends, including her- ddess, then returns tO earth at Kapilavastu. He then mits, merchants, Ava10kitesvara (ll. 100 ー 102 ) and Siva sumes a southward route, VIS1t1ng GOOd FriendS ( II. 104 ). There are also scenes of Sudhana worshipping cluding a goldsmith and simple villagers. His final visit Buddha ( Ⅱ .78 , 94 ) and a stupa ( Ⅱ .96 , 98 ). to a boy and girl who send him to Maitreya. On the east gallery Sudhana VISits more goddesses and Then follows a series of reliefs in which Sudhana is a number of people who cannot be identified. ln one sent, probably indicating a transltlon tO a different sec- episode, a G0ddess of the Night is portrayed sitting in a on of the text. These scenes depict people walking on building decorated with 04 尹 . (II. 106 ) ln another, a bod- ス detail 訪 0 江ツ〃 g & ィ渤Ⅲ 24 な 4 な e 〃ぬ〃な , 防•o Gandavyuha . 0 〃召 0 川房Ⅲ ; あ 0 , , ; S なイあ 4 〃 4 い〃 ev 夜・ , ″あ 0 要行 [ あ夜〃 . ア〃た GANDAVYUHA 131

When passing through the gate one seems to walk straight intO his mouth, for he has no lower Jaw. lnstead, flowers dangle from his upper lip, and the gateway is bordered by flames with more 2 〃 4 た 4 4 on either side, facing outward. The gateways on the different levels varied. Those on the three lower levels were decorated with parrots or たー naras—half-human, half-bird creatures perched just beneath KaIa's jaw. The last gateway leading from the square galleries tO the upper terraces IS quite different, however. The parrots and ん〃〃 are replaced here by ハい or WISe men shown in the act Of showering blossoms onto those who pass through this final gateway into the Sea of lmmortality which lies above. The Round Terraces Ascending from the fourth gallery ontO the round upper terraces, the viS1tor enters a very different realm. The densely-packed decoration, rec- tilinear shapes and enclosed galleries of the lower levels are replaced by large, simple curvilinear forms and open, elevated terraces which Offer distant V1ews ln every direc- t10n, lmpartlng a liberating feeling Of spaclousness. Placed upon the three circular (but not perfectly round) terraces are 72 stupas—32 on the lowest terrace, 24 on the middle, and 16 on the highest. The stupas are not SOlid, but consist Of a stone lattice constructed in such a way that the entlre surface is perforated with regular geometnc opemngs which are diamond-shaped on the first tWO terraces, but square on the third. ViSitors on the terraces " hO peer 1ntO these opemngs see a life-sized stone statue Of Buddha within. From a distance these are lnvisible and one sees only the outer stupa. The stupas are between 3.4 and 3.8 meters in diameter and 3.5 to 3.75 meters high. The ぬ or body is bell- sessed, and the tall spire containing a 13-tiered parasol shaped. The stupas are topped by spires which stand on which surmounted the entlt-e monument. bases called 4 ? 7 〃乞た 4 , S01 れ etll es used tO contain reliCS. Monument With a Message The harmikas are square on the lower two levels, octago- nal on the highest level. These stupas were ransacked by The reliefs on Borobudur are so beautiful and rich that treasure hunters, and may once have contained preC10LIS they can easily overshadow the monument's Other attrl- ObjectS beneath the statues. Van Erp reconstructed them butes. S01 れ e would argue that since they received SO but only about half the original stones could be found, so much care and skill they must have constituted the prin- he had replacements carved. The replacement stones are cipal motlvation for Borobudur's constructlon. If this now indicated by square pegs of plastic. Van Erp had were SO, however, the monument ー ould Sil れ pl メ conSISt marked them with lead pegs, but these were dug out by Of a series Of galleries in which the carvlngs were hung boys who used them as sinkers on their fishing lines. like paintings. Further study of the monument shows At the highest point Of the monument, in the very cen- that there is more tO Borobudur than this, and though we ter Of the structure, stands 2 huge stupa, measuring 16 will never be sure why the Javanese built Borobudur, the meters in diameter and surrounded by a narrow ledge monument's malll meanmg IS more likely tO be found in that was probably intended for offerings. OnIy fragments the complex relationship that exists between the reliefs of the original central stupa remaln—though they give an and the architecture, rather than simply in the reliefs idea Of the simple carved horizontal bands it once pos- themselves. The reliefs form 0n1 メ one component ln a 44 ARCHITECTURE AND SYMBOLISNI 、こ 1 Above and right: G 酊 ew の , 5 / ea 市〃 g 0 〃 7 0 〃に ん ve / こ 0 the 〃に工亡 0 〃ーあ豊 / ら〃 7 ・ ( ℃〃けれ / 立 4 わ℃れ 5 にゞ . The 厖立で覊 e イイ訪い e , 0 〃 the 〃 可、枋に upp のア立 ga 能なに / れ % な / ) , deco- な d ツ訪 kala-makara 襯可於リ〃ル 0 ル / 〃 g 〃〃〃 707 才 4 / ″ ) , , 4 〃 d 気ツー rsis 07 ・ , バ e 〃〃 , 0 ー 0 the 04 〃 d ・ 4 ( ℃ 5 4 み 00 巳″〃お 7 で ac あ / 〃 g the 〃戸 2 のマ才 ac い 4 尹夜 - あ 40 / 〃 g 立〃 d d れ〃 d 4 み SO み e ィーあにんめ 0 〃ゞ CO 〃なに d the 1 で / を宿 襯嚀で〃ん 4 てでみ“〃 co 〃 5 ので d み od ん″ 0 .