His Holiness the DaIai Lama MESSAGES I ndependent Tibet was not a developed country in the mod- ern, material sense. Yet, it had a highly developed civilization and culture. Many centuries back, Tibet, like most Other nations, was using ViOIent 、 and conquest tO expand her territory and tO enrich herself with material treasures. The Tibetans then encountered the teachings of the Buddha, which slOWly persuaded them that it was more important tO conquer their own hearts than tO conquer the whOle world. The peaceful, contented heart does not emerge all 0f a sud- den. Rather, it comes from deep understanding, contentment' and genuine love. These in turn are caused by the conquest Of lgnorance, greed, and hostility. For an entire nation tO make such education, discipline, and insight the center Of its life takes painstaking development 0f a higheg truly human ciV1- lization. The Tibetans had t0 struggle t0 transform a rough, earthy culture Of warrlors 1ntO a gentle, literate culture Of saints and sages.We are still far from perfect. Nevertheless we can display what we have accomplished so far. I was happy in 1991 that this exhibition 0f Buddhist sacred art of Tibet was conceived by Marylin Rhie and R0bert Thurman for Tibet House New York, and that the Asian Art Museum Of san Franc1sco organized it SO that many people in the United states and England were able t0 see some 0f our finest works for themselves. I am delighted that Tibet House New York has reorganized and enlarged the exhibition so that the people 0f Germany, spain, and Japan can now have the same opportunity during the coming years. lt is good that this book is being enlarged and republished in English' and also translated intO German, spanish, Catalan, and Japanese SO that we can better share our precious culture. lt iS my hope that the new exhibition and book will help t0 clarify some 0f the misconceptions and confusions still lingering about the sacred art forms Of Tibet. Art expresses the perceptions Of a people. sacred art reveals their deepest insights and their highest aspirations. SO, tO encounter our works Of sacred art iS tO for yourself some Of our most profound ViSions. Some Of these VISIOIIS come from our greatest masters, whO lOOked deep intO the human soul, confronted the stark realities Of human and discovered the human capabilities Of wisdom and love. If only a few of these works of art bring pleasure, stimulate curiosity, and provoke new insights tO even a small number Of those wh0 see and study them, then the exhibitions and the editions of this book will have accomplished their purpose ・ We have treasured them for centuries in Tibet and are deeply moved that they are now beginning to be treasured by the open-minded people of the whole world. D 厖川覊市 4 0 け 0 わ催 7 995 7 ・ Messages

119 - ◎ ) ク 6 Vaishravana Buryat, USSR 19th century Wood-block carving 19 % X16 % xl ″ ( 50X41 x3.5 cm) The State Hermitage, Leningrad. Recent acquisition from the Ethnographic Expeditions This wood block with an image of Vaishravana as the god of wealth belongs to a large collection of W00 d blocks pre- served in the Hermitage. Vaishravana IS shown here in his traditional iconography: he sits on a lion, holding a banner in his right hand and a j ewel-spouting mongoose in his left hand. The collection includes more than a thousand wood blocks brought to Leningrad from Aginski monastery, the main Buddhist printing house in Buryat (now in Chita region) in the early 1930S. This collection has about a hundred sets of wood blocks of Tibetan and MongoIian texts and a dozen wood blocks with mandalas, mantras, and images Of deities. The collection was supplied with short notes on some of the objects. The following text is a summary of them. To make a wood block, Buryat masters, wh0 were, as a rule, laymen, used 0 司 y soft wood, usually of trees growing on the banks Of rivers, such as willOW. First, Pleces Of WOOd were dried for six tO ten months and only after that would they be used for making wood blocks. Having cut both sides of a big wood block took about cleaned of the dried butter with a special four days, and masters were given from boards of one of the four prescribed sizes, brush. a master planed it clean and tOOk out all one and a half to two rubles per block. lndia ink for printing had to be pre- knots, filling the cavities with pieces of After the text had been cut the monks pared long before being used. A piece of clear 、 MOOd Of corresponding sizes. Then a checked it another five times, making dry ink was put into a pot and diluted monk would draw lines on the surface of pnnts and correctlng mistakes first in the with hot water. The pot was placed in the board and write the text along them print and then in the wood block itself. a warm place and kept there for five to with black lndia ink, using a special Wrong or misspelled words or syllables months. Fresh warm water was added tO wooden pen. The text was wrrtten ln were cut out and pieces Of WOOd with compensate for the evaporation Of liquid. nurror reflection. ln the 1920S , when the written and cut text on them were lnserted During printing, a wood block was rubbed in their place and fastened with a special prlnting house in Aginski monastery was with ink, a sheet of paper of the corres- still operating and producing wood blocks, glue. This system of checking allowed ponding S1ze was put on the wood block a skilled scribe could prepare up to ten them tO eliminate mistakes almost and pressed ontO lt with a special wood blocks a day, and would be paid completely. Then the final proofs, the horsehair brush. The process of making rather g00 d money for them. WOOd blocks with images Of deities was wood blocks were boiled in butter in order Monks checked the written text two to essentially the same. The main difference tO prevent warping. Monks used about one five times, reading it with the help of a was that sometlmes a sheet Of thin paper pound 0f butter for every ten wood mirror and correcting mistakes. They then with a drawing Of a deity was put on a blocks. When the butter started to boil, gave the wood block to an engraver. they put a few wood blocks in a pot with board with its reverse side up and the Somet1mes the engravers monks, but contour Of the image was perforated with boiling butter and kept them there for as a rule they were lay people living not a needle, for ease in transferring the image one minute. Then the boiled wood blocks far from the monastery. TO cut the text on were taken away, cooled, dried, and finally to the wood block. G. Leonov 0 0 0 Catalogue: Buddhist Orders ・ 306

origin, is used in Bhutan and Mongolia. There, the walls 0f sanctuanes are covered With huge canvases, their appearance ln no way different from the traditional mural paintlngs executed directly on the dry plasterlike clay mixture. ln Tibetan, a painting that rolls up is called a tangka, 、 'thing that one unrolls. '' N'lost 0f them are painted on a length Of COtton, but one Often finds rougher textiles such as hemp and linen (flax). When the artist does not have a single piece of cloth long enough for the desired painting, he sews on an additional strip, barely noticeable in the finished work. C0tton was Often imported from lndia, and sometimes from China, as spun thread, and then woven IntO canvas at major centers such as Lhasa. Numerous examples reveal the local style of weavrng tO be close and even. Silk was used as a ground, a background support, on in Chinese monasteries practicing Tibetan Buddhism. The tangka canvas is stretched tightly on a temporary but very sturdy framework by a system 0f crisscross lacing. The canvas iS then prepared with sizing, tO make the surface smooth. The composition Of thiS SiZing varies; it can contaln gelatin, as well as Other proteins and organlC matter. When the surface Of the canvas is Of a suitable fineness, the following Step iS considered useful. The canvas recewes a preparatory layer of chalk and of a more-or-less pure white porcelain (kaolin) clay, mixed into a paste with water and applied with a special knife. Once the surface dries, the painter polishes both the prepared side and the back with a small river-washed stone, or with a shell. He can then position the figures. The painter first begins by tracing a network 0f fine geo- metric lines, diagonal and then secondary ones. He achieves this with the help of a thin string saturated with chalk and kept in a specialleather pouch, or by use 0f a compass. The lines laid out on the painting surface correspond tO diagrams specifically developed for each deity and for secondary figures. The proportions of the represented deities were codified by a tradition that was heir tO ancient Sanskrit texts such as the ハ 04 川 4 可〃訪ⅲ川ィ信た 4 ゆ 4 〃な 4 and that was considerably enriched in Nepal and Tibet. There are two types 0f propor- tional measure: the large measures (C わ 4 じわ e 〃 ) and small measures ( 訪 4 訪″〃 g ) , b0th related t0 specific parts 0f the human body. The drawing is executed with a graphite pencil; the weak adherence of the lines made this way allows for correctmg mistakes and for making changes. For this part Of the work the artist can be aided by anthologies 0f drawings or sketches. The Oldest known one (now in a private collection ln Calcutta), dating from 1435 , is the work of a Nepali painter named Jivarama. As in paintings 0f Central Asia 0f the 5th and 6th centuries, certain repetitive images can be obtained by the use of pounced drawings ( な gs 予 ) , the desired silhouette being punctured through tiny holes. From about the 18th century, under the influence of China, entlre composl- tions have been obtained by wood-block printing. The final drawing, redrawn in black or red, then disappears with the application 0f colors. The pigments used are almost all Of mineral extraction: blue from azurite, green from malachite, reds and yellOWS from cinnabar, vermilion, realgar (arsenic disulfide), and orpiment (king's yellow, arsenic trisulfide), orange from mmium (red lead), white from chalk, and gold. OnIy black is of organic ongm, made from carbonized wood or graphite. These pig- ments are ground in a small mortar, dissolved in water, and then linked by a colloidal substance. They are then applied by a WhOle series Of paint brushes Of differing sizes and textures t0 the ground, which in some cases is gold or black, rather than white. The painter creates volume for each Of the parts by the application of lightened or adulterated tones. Blue from indigo and red from lacquer Of insect origln are particularly used for this kind of work. On the whole this method is com- parable t0 that of Western gouache. The technique is originally Tibetan and is related tO other commonly used Tibetan techniques, while the principles Of composition seem tO be Of Chinese orrgin. The lines that contour the forms and the details, such as the motifs of the clothing, are executed at the end. The last op- erat10n consists Of drawing the eyes Of the figures. These are mscribed according to eight types of procedures. "Opening the eyes" ( 斗坦〃 - d わ ) ⅵ 0f the divine figures is an integral part 0f the consecratlon ritual. Painted tangkas are the most common ones, but there are 引 so tangkas executed with appliqué and embroidery, or with Other textile techniques. The "embroidered application," more commonly known as 、 'appliqué" ( 市ぉ - 市 4 わ - 川鶤 gos-sku), is a particularly Tibetan style, as testified in pre- 17th-century texts. Fragments Of clOth ー most Often silks, traditionally lmported from China or even from lndia ー are cut 1ntO the desired shapes and colors and juxtaposed to form a kind of mosaic. The pieces are either sewn ontO a background or tO each other. Rigid bands of golden binding, made ofleather or sometimes 0f horse or yak hair mixed with threads 0f gold, hide the seams and circle the contours. Certain details are even painted on. frame ()t• similar t() those of painted tangkas gives further support for the finished work. This procedure has been used for the preparation of both pious images and ornamental works, especially for the colossal tangkas hung on the occasron Of certaln celebrations over the facades Of the monasteries and almost entirely covering them. ln the absence Of written materials, even relative dating Of these works remains largely hypothetical. Most 0f the pre- served pieces do not date earlier than the middle of the 18th century, and their place 0f manufacture is generally debatable. They were made in several places: in Gyantse and in other centers Of southern Tibet, in Lhasa in the central regions Of Tibet, in Sikkim, and in Bhutan. Also, this technique experienced some important developments in 、 longolia. Embroideries with Tibetan Buddhist subject matter were executed in the far eastern part Of Tibet and in China and were exported. Their technique, Often Of great virtuosity, cannot be distinguished from Other embroideries Of Chinese manufacture. The silk tapestry or たお / (literally 、 'engraved threads") is essentially a Chinese technique, often used for the preparation Of ceremonial clothing or for the 、 'mandarin squares" ( 々〃〃 g ) that indicated the owner's rank. From the Song dynasty ( 960 ー 1279 ) through the Yuan period ( 1279 ー 1368 ) and the Ming dynasty ( 1368 ー 1644 ) , Buddhist tapestries Of enormous SIZe were made With thiS technique, often enhanced with gold and silver threads. ln later works, the technique loses the virtuosity 0f the older たお / , which had up to 275 threads per inch of chainlike rib. Their huge size partly accounts for the slackening, as does the use Of highlights of paint for certain details, which is quicker and less painstaking. This technique, frequently seen in works from the monasteries ()f northern China, IS unknown most of Tibet itself. Techniques ・ 386

in the pr0Ject over a long period 0f time; Gennady Leonov, for his longtime friendship and generous spirit of support; Julia Moore, for her insight, editorial skill, patience, and creativity in taking hOld under the pressure Of the C01 れ - plexities Of this large project, and for coming up with a clear vision of the beautiful book in it; Nena von SchIe- brugge-Thurman and Young H. Rhie, whose devotion, diplomacy, insight, patience, and hard work were crucial, unfailingly helpful, constant, and utterly indispensable. ・ With heartfelt appreciation, we thank the institutions and individuals WhO have been crucial supporters and partners along the way: The National Endowment for the Humanities, The Threshold Foundation, The Luce Foun- dation, and The Merck Foundation. At Tibet House, Matthew BuckIey, Chimi Thonden, Johnnie Chace, William Sterling, and the entire board and staff have our deepest gratitude. At the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, we thank Clarence Shangraw, Terese Tse BarthoIomew, Richard Kohn, HaI Fischer, and Libby lngalls. At the IBM GalIery of Science and Art, our special thanks to Cynthia Goodman, Richard Berglund, and Robert Murdock. 、 also want tO acknowledge our colleagues whO served on the advisory committee, those whO SO graciously contri- buted tO earlier verslons Of this manuscript, and those whO were consulted informally at various stages over the years: VenerabIe GeIek Rinpoche, VenerabIe Pema Wangdak, VenerabIe TuIku Thondup, Lobsang P. Lhalungpa, Harold TaIbott, Heather Stoddard-Karmay, and Valrae Reynolds; the late Venerable Hiroshi Sonami, Tartse Ngor Khenpo, Venerable pema Losang Chögyen, Professor Pramod Chandra, professor EIIiot Sperling, and Paul Nietupski. Also, we are grateful to Edwin Thomas J. Pritzker, Martin Brauen, and Young H. Rhie for sharing their superb personal photographs; t0 Anna Souza and L0bsang Lhalungpa for their translations; and t0 others wh0 helped in vanous ways, with typing, proofreading' ph0tographY' and other supports: Richard Fish, Sonya Rhie, Nancy Braxton, Beata Tikos, Janice Leoshk0, Denise Leidy, Robert Mowry, and many others. Caroline D. Warner has our admiration for her sharp-eyed, intelligent' and good- humored polishing of the text of this book, and Maria Miller deserves great credit for her elegant and sensitive design. M. M. R. 4 れ d R. 工 11 ・ Acknowledgments 1996 Acknowledgments e gratefully acknowledge His H01iness the Dalai Lama for encouraging us tO move forward with effort and enthu- S1a sm tO remcarnate the みな dO 〃 7 4 〃 d CO ア々 ass わ〃 exhibition. We thank Rand CastiIe, former Director of the Asian Art Museum Of San Francisco, for giving blessing tO our efforts tO reorganize the exhibition. For their advice and kind cooperation, we thank Hal Fischer, Terese Tse BarthoIomew, Richard Kohn, and Libby lngalls. We are thankful to Mark GotIob, Marie-Therese Brincard, and Sarah Fogel at the American Federation of Arts for their expert advice on the complex organizatlon process and for assuring the highest-caliber registrarial procedures for the present exhibition. We are sincerely gratefulto publisher Paul Gottlieb at Abrams for his faithful support in publishing this book in its expanded form in English.We also give special thanks to Julia Moore, Maria Miller, Margaret Chace, and Toula Ballas for their exacting and patient efforts in producing this volume. We wish tO express our S1ncere gratitude tO Robert Hat- field EIIsworth, Jack and MurieI Zimmerman, John and Berthe Ford, and Kira Samosyuk for continuing t0 help us Obtain works for the exhibition. We alSO appreciate the helpful cooperation of Deborah Klimburg-Salter, Jane Casey Singer, Steven Kossak 0f the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the kind assistance given by Fabi0 Rossi, M0ke Mokotoff, Stuart Perrin, and Nik Douglas. To Ryuichi Abe, Ryuju Abe, and Hiroko Sakomura, we extend our gratitude for their tireless, thoughtful efforts in getting the international exhibition started.We are alSO very thankfulto Uma Thurman for encouragement and participation in the early phases Of negotiation. ・ are immensely fortunate tO have had the persever- ance and perceptive assistance ofNena von Schlebrugge Thurman, Treasurer and board member of Tibet House New York, through the entire project. Profound thanks go to Jeffrey Jordan, Director of Exhibitions at Tibet House, without whose skillful, determined, industrious, and courageous efforts the exhibition would not have been possible. TO our dear friends Nancy Braxton, attorney-at- law, and Beata TikOS, Administrative Director Of Tibet House New York, and to all the board members, staff, and volunteers, especially John Morgenegg, we offer heartfelt thanks. FinaIIy, we would like to acknowledge the contin- uous and unflagging help and understanding of numerous other friends and associates, particularly Young Rhie whose insights and guidance have sustained us during the long process. M. M. R. 4 〃 d R. 工

The early Jokhang wall paintings provide important remains for distinguishing and defining the painting styles of the central regions. They demonstrate not only a general stylistic compatibility with Western Tibetan pamting 0f the time but also clearly reveal the special character Of the central regional style. AIthough distinctly different from Western Tibetan paintings, the style 0f these central Tibetan J0khang paintings generally relates tO the graceful, SIOW curves apparent in the linear style of the Tabo wall paintings of ca. the 1040S , but without the heavy line of the Tabo style ( fig. 5 ). Similarly, certain elements relate tO the paintings in the Sumtsek at い Alchi but with far less interest in the minute details of textiles and jewelry (Pal, 1982 , S66 ). The Jokhang paintings 引 so have some similarities tO motifs in Chinese Buddhist art. The style of the background flowers, for example, relates to the flower designs painted on the ceiling 0f the Lower Huayansi (Hua-yen ssu) in Datong, northern Shansi, near the Chinese border with Mongolia, dated 1038 (Sekino and Takeshima, 1934 ー 1944 , I, 鬢ト fig. 47 ). A distinctive style of the central regions emerges in these early J0khang paintings. The unified, elegant simplicity of the full and regularly proportioned bodies complemented by the restrained curves of the relatively plain ornaments especially characterizes this style, which clearly represents the major elements Of the distinctively sophisticated styles Of paintmg in the central regions as they develop in the 12th century. Closely related to the style of the Jokhang wall paintings, but with more refinement and increased elaboration, which suggests a slightly more developed style, are the Green Tara in No. 24 and the lama portrait in No. 95 , both in the collection of Mr. and Mrs. John GiImore Ford, as well as the Vairochana tangka recently acquired by the Cleveland Museum ( fig. 11 ). They all probably date from the 12th century. The style of the Fig. 9. Buddha, main image of the central chapel, lwang monastery, Tsang, in the central regions of Tibet. Ca. late 12th to early 13th century. Stucco. Photographed by Li Gotami Govinda in 1947. (photo: Lama and Li Gotami Foundation, Munich, Germany) motifs in Khotanese art. BOth Tibet and Kashmir, being in close contact with Khotan, could have received similar influences from Khotan. Although there does not seem to have been a continuation 0f this special style in Tibet, elements of the style, such as the raised medallion designs, appear in other sculptures like those at Kyangphu monastery of the 13th century (). G. Govinda, 1979 , I, pp. 41 ー 43 ; Tucci, 1989a , III, figs. 25 , 26 , 29 , 30 , 31 ). However, this unusual and splendid group of stucco lmages from lwang and Nesar forms an important, distinc- tively different ingredient among the other sculptural styles predominantly related t0 lndian and Nepalese art during this early periOd Of the second Transmiss10n in the central reglons. Paintings from the central regions of Tibet of this period are some Of the finest masterworks of Tibetan art. Though most surVIVe as tangkas, a few 、 paintings are known. some tangkas just recently commg to light may date from the late 1 lth century, and in the Jokhang temple in Lhasa there are a few exceedingly rare wall paintmgs that may be among the earliest remalns Of wall paintlngs in the central regions, possibly dating in the late 11 th or early 12th century ( fig. 10 ). The remalns are scant and the evidences for dating few and far between. However, a group of Tibetan style paintings from the Central Asian site of Khara Khoto now in the collection of the Hermitage in Leningrad provide invaluable materials for this period, especially in relation to the painting of the central regrons 0f Tibet. Fig. 10. Bo 渤な酣れ観 , wall painting, Jokhang, Lhasa. Ca. late 11 市 to early 12th century. (photo: Xizang gongye qianchu kanze shejuyuan, D 破房 0 Beijing, 1985 , fig. on p. 77 ) 47 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art

27 Sarasvati Eastern Tibet 17th century Tangka ; gouache on cotton 143 / 16 x 9 % ″ ( 36.1 x 24.4 cm) The Los AngeIes County Museum of Art, Los Angeles. From the Nasli and AIice Heeramaneck Collection. Museum Associates Purchase. M. 84.32.6 Lit. : PaI, 1983 , p. 160. Sarasvati is the goddess oflearning and music, a goddess beloved by Hindus and Buddhists alike. Her popularity spreads far beyond the borders of lndia to Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan. This tangka, though small, is one of the loveliest of Sarasvat1 in surviving Tibetan art. She is white in C010r , seated on a simply drawn, large white lotus. Her legs are drawn up in an unusual cross-ankled posture with her knees raised, presumably a posture for musical performance. Her delicately long fingers hOld a レ ~ 〃 4 , a classical musical lnstrument Of lndia. Her ornaments are simple and restrained, but a narrow, dark 3 green scarf creates a flurry Of movement around the figure. lt floats ln an arc behind her slightly tilted head, then winds around her arms and drifts off in a circular maze to left and right. The chalky white of the body with its pale outlining Of the fe atures contrasts with the more colorful orange, pink, and green stripes of the skirt and its red-orange and pink overhang. A plain, peach-colored halo like the setting sun broadly encircles the entlre figure. lts pastel color provides a perfect setting for the image, while the unusual dark green shading that outlines the orb glves it a sense Of substance and prominent seems to express the Buddhist belief that definition. over an expanse 0f gently rippling water the ordinary and the transcendent, samsara with charming details of white lotuses, An outstanding feature Of this tangka is and nirvana, are one beautifully balanced the style of the landscape. lt is spacious, pairs of ducks (one with a small family of reality. For an analysis 0f the dating, see baby ducks), and two red-crested cranes. atmospheric, and idealized, creating an Beyond, in the background, are several idyllic yet naturalistic setting for the the essay "Tibetan Buddhist Art: Aesthetics, Chronology, and Styles. " oddly shaped peaks and a pale pink sky goddess. ln alternating horizontallayers of Another painting, of White Tara, in this with blue clouds thatthen fades into blue green and pink washes, the eye moves back darkness. Above the clouds, three lamas through this charming scene along a same style and possibly by the same artist float as though hovering in the air. This or even from the same IS in the unified level plane, approximating a collection Of the American Museum Of landscape readily assimilates the deity, naturalistic three-dimensional space rarely with no duality between the perfect and Natural History in New York. They were seen in Tibetan painting. A gentle rock probably produced in Eastern Tibet and and grassy shoreline with two groups 0f otherworldly goddess and the worldly lamas define the foreground. From here the reality of the spacious landscape. This may be related [ 0 the Karma Gadri landscape moves readily to the midground harmony of the worldly and the divine schools of that region. 135 ・ Catalogue: Sacred History

experienced frequent visions Of them. still, due tO the sense that even lcons are by extenslon part Of the actual Body of Buddha, Tibetans feel that icons transmit a living presence. They feel that this can be ritually and contemplatively en- hanced by rituals Of consecration and even by the attention of an accomplished lama. For the Tibetans, art can exerclse its liberating and de- lighting function through any medium. The highest medium is life itself, the living material of an incarnation. Tibetans believe that their reincarnate lamas have achieved the highest stage of Buddhahood, that they have become free of the sel- fish instinct t0 grasp for life and have already experienced the supreme peace Of nirvana. Thus their returning incarnate among the people is itself the highest artistic act. The clrcumstances Of their births, the qualities Of their bodies, their deeds, teachings, and creatlons ー all these are for the sake Of the beholders. Encountering such an incarnatl()n is the highest aesthetic expenence for the Tibetan. The living lncarnation iS thus far superior tO the icon made Of gold, or gems, or Ⅵ , 00d , or stone. Of course, there are many examples Of inanimate icons talking and acting to help beings; and there are lncarnations Whose mummified b()dies remaln perfect and confer liberation 叩 on those who behold them. The bound- arres are vague in this realm because Of the fundamental Tibetan sense of the inconceivable generosity and abundance of enlightened beings. The next important medium is literature, the enlightened word being a direct route to the imagery of the human lmagination. Great authors are high artists most appreciated by the educated. The Great Adepts like MiIarepa, Drukpa KunIek, Tangtong GyaIpo, as well as the Sixth DaIai Lama and others who adapted the Dharma to the form of the Tibetan folk song, are most appreciated by the simple people. The Tibetans have epics and songs, rhymes and riddles, tales and legends —in all, an lmmense native literature in addition tO the vast, treasured canon of translations from the Sanskrit. MusiC IS lmportant; itS harmomes and vibrations are able t() affect the heart and emotions of the listener directly. Tibetan monastic chants are extraordinary in their ability tO communicate the wisdom Of selflessness ln pure sound. some Tibetan monks have the ability to sing a note in such a way that multiple overtones are produced, settlng up a resonance in the tone that is considered capable Of opening the heart centers Of the listeners. There are a wide variety Of chants accomplishing 0ther effects such as healing or lnspirmg, as well as ballads and folk songs intended simply to delight. Architecture IS a major medium, and here the learned lamas are the masters, seeking to imbed in public buildings the forms from the tantric mandalas that are believed tO convey the architectonics of the enlightened sensibility. To be in a lofty, well-adorned space of precisely determined proportions is believed tO instill a sense of exaltation, security, and delight ln a person S central nervous system. Archetype deities are visualized by yogis within precisely and elaborately defined architectures. Thus the architecture of the potala expresses tO the beholder that it is the residence of the Bodhisattva of compassion: lt is powerful and inviting, secure and stable, yet fantastic and delightful. The highest of the architectural arts iS, Of course, the construction Of three-dimensional mandalas, which are made of mind, wood, metal, clay, butter, dough, and even thread, and elaborately decorated with gems and precious cloth. The highest 0f these are those made 0f mind- 37 ・ Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism stuff in pure imagination, and they are the paradigms 0f all Others. An adept yogl or yoginl on the creation stage Of Unexcelled Yoga can visualize so precisely and so stably that he or she can hold firmly in mind every architectural and ornamental feature Of a luminous mandalic mansion, from within and without, from above and belO 、 for several hours. lt is said that a person with even a fraction Of this ability tO visualize finds all mandalas made in coarser media dull and disappointing, though such a person will create them anyway as tnggers for the imaginations Of Others. The sculptural arts are treasured as a way of energrzing the visualization 0f oneself as an archetype Buddha. These icons, t00 , are made 0f mind, gems, metal, wood, clay, dough, and butter, with the highest being mind. The tantric practice of melting one's ordinary sense Of bOdy intO voidness and revisualizing oneself as an archetype Buddha deity, such as Yamantaka with his many heads and faces and arms and legs, affects the central nervous system even more po 、 verfully than the architectural visualization (actually the two go together, as one visualizes the deity within mandalic space). The Buddha art Of incarnatlon iS thus learned in the tantric art Of visual- ization. The belief is that in life one rehearses the self-creatlon of bodily forms (those that ideally express compassion) in sustained contemplation, developing extreme stability Of visualization and full control Of normally unconscious imagery processes. Then after death, in the between-state, where image can fluidly shape subtle matter without the resistance Of coarse forms, one can adopt the archetype deity form for real, thereby englneermg an acceleration toward perfect enlighten- ment in forms Of compasslon as well as in depth Of wisdom. Thus every tantric yogi is a sculptor of the subtle stuff of lmagmation. The sculptors in the coarse materials are aware Of this highest form Of their art and SO take their direction from such lamas. The icons placed in temples and holy places are intended t0 remind ordinary Tibetans 0f the limitlessly abundant and beautiful manifestations of enlightened beings and inspire them about their own potential tO achieve such states. The sculptor following traditional proportions ln making a Buddha statue consclous 0f being part 0f the Artistic Emanation Body and of being a vessel of the Buddha actlvlty. The two-dimensional painted icons and the particle mandalas made on a flat surface are connected tO the same range 0f approaches as the art forms just described. Again, the picture should be a window on the enlightened dimension. If an archetype deity were tO be painted incorrectly, Tibetan artists believe it could plant a distorted image in a vrewer's unconsclous and damage him or her genetically during a future rebirth process. As His H01iness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama once remarked in a lecture on qmescence meditation, "lt's best to use a small Buddha image as the object of focus for this concentratlon; it plants a good seed for your own future Buddhahood. But make sure you have a well-made Buddha image; if you meditate a 10t on a crooked Buddha lmage, there's a danger you will one day become a crooked Buddha! " He burst into gales oflaughter, but the Tibetan mind takes these things seriously. The artist has to be a person who is open enough to enlightenment tO serve as a selfless vessel for its manifes- tatlOns; WhO has tO participate in the creation Of a work Of art out Of dedication tO the higher realm, and not primarily for fame or profit. lt is an anonymous art. Rarely do we find

1368 , they were unable to develop the patron-priest relation- ship with any Tibetan lamas on the pattern established by the Mongols. During this third wave, an lnnovatlon in the pattern Of religious authority developed among the Karma Kagyu suborder based at Tsurpu. Thirteen years after the death in 1193 of the first Karmapa, Dusum Kyenpa, a remarkable child was born in 1206 in eastern Tibet. He was duly recognized as the actual reincarnation Of the Karmapa Lama. He was enthroned and established as the second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi. From then on the Karma Kagyu suborder was headed by a Karmapa Lama relncarnation, whose birth was not restricted tO any particular family. The Karmapa Lamas were born in varlOllS regl()ns and families, thus broadening the order's contacts and supporters. They developed good relations with various Mongol rulers and, after the fourth Karmapa Deshin Shekpa's 1407 visit to the Ming emperor Yongle, with the Ming emperors of China. The Ming, however, were not an international empire like the Mongols, and they were never able tO install the Karmapa incarnations as hierarchs Of Tibet in parallel with the Sakyapas earlier. From the 14th to the 17th centuries, the political authority remained in the hands of the Pakmodrupa ruler, slowly passing to the Rinpung family in Shigatse, and then t0 the regents in Tsang. The Tibetan polity was troubled now and then during this time as varlOllS rulers contended for power. Throughout, the Karmapa Lamas, like the Sakya hierarchs, were combinations Of scholar-saint monks and Great Adepts. Their charismatic travels through the length and breadth of Tibet and Mongolia spread this third wave of Tibetan Buddhism very widely. The fourth and final wave began at the same tme as the second and third, with the coming of Atisha to Tibet in 1042. His disciple Dromton Gyalway Jungnay founded the Kadam (Oral lnstruction) Order at Ratreng monastery in 1056. The Kadam institutions in the 1 lth and 12th centuries established a curriculum based on Atisha's teachings, pro- ducing numerous enlightened persons. Sonam Drakpa 0f the Sakya Order, Gampopa and TakIung Tangpa of the Kagyu Order, and many lamas of all orders studied in the Kadam monasteries. The Kadampas assiduously avoided involvement with political matters, as the Sakya and Kagyu orders t00k responsibility for Tibetan nationallife. The Kadampas kept their m1SSIOn on the social level Of the spiritual needs Of the people 0f various regions. Thus they remained a powerful current under the crests Of the second and third waves. The Geluk Wave Tsong Khapa, the founder of the New Kadam, or Geluk, Order, was born in 1357 in Amdo in the far northeast of Tibet, at the very beginning of the Pakmodrupa revival of Tibetan national feeling after the receding of the Mong01 empire. The great scholars of the Kadam, Nyingma, Sakya, and Kagyu orders had developed the canon 0f translations, the curricula Of monasterres, and the climate for contempla- tives that enabled him tO spend his lifetime in study, practice, writing, and teaching. Tsong Khapa's native gemus made effective use Of the creatlve and comprehensive works Of his predecessors; he made the greatest contribution Of any Tibetan lama up to that time. His first teacher, the Kadampa Rinchen Döndrup, was led by dreams and oracles to Tsong Khapa's family, and took him as disciple at the age of three. He was 29 ・ Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism ordained soon thereafter as a novlce monk by the fourth Karm 叩 a Lama, Deshin Shekpa. He went to the central reglons 0f Tibet in 1372 , and spent twenty years studying with Nyingmapa, Sakyapa, Kagyupa, and Kadampa teachers mastering all the important Buddhist studies 0f the day. BY the mid-1380S he was an acknowledged master, having had advanced spiritual realizations and having written maJ()r works 0f critical scholarship and insight. ln the early 1390S he began a more mystical phase, spending seven years ln semiretreat, reportedly in daily conference with the celestial Bodhisattva Manjushri. ln 1398 he achieved complete enlightenment, and soon began his work (his "four maJ0r deeds") t0 renew the course 0f Buddhism in Tibet, t0 bring the fourth wave tO its crest. He began by refurbishing a famous temple 0f Maitreya, the future Buddha, at Dzingji. During a year 0f miracles, pilgrims from all over Tibet came there and had extraordinary VlSions, while Tsong Khapa and his friends reconstructed the temple. His second deed was tO convene a great council Of all the orders tO review the monastic Discipline (Vinaya) that provides the blueprint for Buddhist religious commumties. This resulted ln a new wave Of monastic renewal that affected all Of Tibet. His third major deed was to establish, in 1409 , a New Year's festival in Lhasa around the Jokhang, the national shrine built in the 7th century by Songtsen Gamb0. This Great Prayer FeStival lasted several weeks, commemorating the fortnight Of miracles performed by Shakyamuni Buddha before the assembled nations Of lndia. For those weeks, there was no difference between monk and layperson; the natlon's business was tO pray and celebrate. (The original event was a time when Buddha opened a visionary door for the whole society into the world 0f enlightenment, and the Lhasa festival served the same function for the Tibetans. ) During that time, histories report, everyone could feel ordinary time stand still, and the whole society was lifted for a while into the realm of perfection, the Buddha Land, where wisdom and compassion were fully manifest tO everyone. The crowmng moment Of the festival came when Tsong Khapa offered the 扣 wo Rinpoche statue Of Shakyamuni elaborate, expensive jeweled ornaments, symbolizing the eternal presence of the Buddha at the heart of the Tibetan nation. Tsong Khapa's fourth great deed was the construction in 1415 Of three three-dimensional mandalas (perfect universes) of these Buddhas: Guhyasamaja, Paramasukha-Chakrasamvara, and Vajrabhairava— a re- markable feat Of scholarship, contemplative virtuosity, artistic skill and creativity, and spiritual devotion. He allowed his Ganden hermitage tO be built up intO a major monastery for the express purpose Of sheltering these precious mandalas. The disciples of the new Geluk Order were so numerous that a second monastery near Lhasa was built at Drepung 1416 and a third at Sera in 1419. After Tsong Khapa's passing away in 1419 , the renewed Kadam, or GeIuk, Order began immediately to spread widely through Tibet. Tsong Khapa's disciple Jamchen Chöjey accepted the Ming emperor S lnvltatlon tO visit BeiJing, where he built a maJ()r monastery. The three new Lhasa monasterles grew int0 the largest 0f any religion in the world, housing around four thousand, seven thousand, and ten thousand monks respectively. The work of establishing monasteries and their curricula in order t() produce ever greater numbers Of educated and enlightened persons expanded greatly throughout the 15 [ h and 16th centuries.

to find out if there was something more to life than following the conventional path from birth to death. Renouncing his home, family, property, body, and even identity, he went into the forest tO meditate until he might find the truth or die in the attempt. ln lndian culture, it was not considered enough just to think about the great questions. Philosophy was not merely academic; lt was an enterprise bOth religious and scientific. lt was a yoga ー a yoking of one's self to one's understanding— what Ⅵ℃ call emplrlcism, the idea that one must test one's ideas in expenence. Understanding counted for nothing if it did not transform the self. One had to undertake the in- vestigation 0f reality by yoking the mind and emotions, the body and the soul, to the aim of one's quest. One had not only to learn about the truth through rational inquiry, but had to further test that truth by becoming it, by experlencing it in the deepest levels of one's being. To achieve that, the seeker of enlightenment had tO learn the arts Of concentration and meditation, tO take the art Of the thought experiment tO the ultimate levels. Often, these lndian philosopher-yogis became so intent on their quests that they ignored or even mortified their bodies. Siddhartha lived among such philosophical ascetics for six years, fasting and mortifying his flesh until he was skin and bones. He mastered the techniques of psycho-physical trances and achieved deep absorption in the higher realms of pure form, boundless light, love, JOY, and equality, and even in the formless realms Of infinite space, infinite conscl()usness, absolute nothingness, and the realm beyond all imaginatlon. StiIl he was not satisfied. At the age of thirty-five, he renounced asceticlsm, as he had previously renounced the self-indulgence of the worldly life. He accepted normal fOOd and returned tO a more moderate lifestyle. Then, he took his seat under the great bodhi tree and proclaimed he would not budge until he fully understood everything, until he had transformed himself into a Buddha. By dawn of the following day he had attained perfect en- lightenment, defined by him as complete freedom from all suffering, full experiential knowledge of the exact nature of reality, and comprehensive a 、 vareness Of all itS dimenslons. He declared that he had discovered the reality of all things to be ultimate selflessness, or voidness, or freedom, and ultimate relativity. By selflessness or freedom he meant that things lack any independent self and are naturally free of any intrmsic identity, unrelated essence, or isolated substance, and by ultimate relativity that there iS no source Of the unlverse that IS not relative. When people hear about these things, they tend to feel intimidated, sure only that they cannot understand them. But Buddhist freedom and relativity are not particularly mysterious. The Buddha had been looking for freedom from suffering, and he discovered that freedom was inherent in the very fabric of reality. Finding himself already truly free, he no longer felt trapped in an unfree world, and he was able to accept wholeheartedly a creatlve involvement in relativity. He became aware of the preclse way he had previously been a pnsoner Of ignorance, and he noticed that Others, still im- prisoned, could find their own ways out. Buddha held that the vicious cycle of suffering starts from our not knowmg our own freedom, because lgnorance conditions us tO feel ourselves as separate entltles pitted against a hOStile unlverse. Feeling hemmed in by over- 23 ・ Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism whelming oppositlon, we crave freedom, supposlng it to be some state 0f relief outside 0f the world. We struggle ever harder against things to win that freedom. We may break the cycle by cultivating critical wisdom through investigation of the reality of self and universe. We may systematically overcome ignorance by seeing through the illusion of being a separate "self" and Of the unlverse being an objective "other. '' We realize that everything is free of any intrinslc status, there is no real self tO be trapped, no real universe that traps, and also no real off-world isolated state of freedom. Free of the "self" delusion, we become free of self-concern. Free of self- concern, we become free tO lnteract unselfishly with Others. Free tO interact unselfishly, we no longer experience lnteractlon as suffering; Ⅵ℃ become able tO expenence all things happily. ln reaching such an enlightenment himself, the Buddha declared that he had achieved the purpose of evolution, the ultimate fulfillment of human and even divine potential. He also declared that allliving beings could eventually reach and experience for themselves the same ultimate bliss. And he pledged his newly acquired, inexhaustible energies toward helping them d0 so. And this experience of turning around in the depth of the self from self-delusion and self-obsession to freedom and concern for others has been the fountain of the energy 0f the entire Buddhist movement through history. An important Sanskrit word for "truth," "reality," and 引 SO the "teaching" that leads t0 understanding them is d わ川鶤 coming from the verbal root dhr, meaning "to hold. " The Buddha said that every intelligent being could understand the truth, that such understanding would lead to direct expenence Of reality, and that such experience would result in freedom, happiness, and transformation. The greatest gift one could give Others thus was teaching; it could help others come to understanding, freedom, and happiness. The most effective teacher is a Buddha, since a Buddha has personally attained the understanding for himself or herself. And Shakyamuni Buddha proceeded to spend the next forty-five years teaching his new Dharma, far and wide. ln most religions, truth is thought of as something to be believed, in the sense Of adopted as a correct proposition, embraced as a credO, or submitted tO as a command. The Buddha's Dharma could not help its adherents much just by being believed. TO be content with believing in it was to confuse its verbal propositions with the reality it pointed to. TO encounter the reality and be transformed by the encounter, one had tO understand it, not just believe it. TO understand something reqtllres a process Of inqtllry, examination, and experimentatlon —in fact, a process Of education that is a yoga Of self-transformation. TO make such a process available to his contemporaries and t0 posterity, the Buddha had t0 found a new educational institution, a SChOOl for people tO learn about the Dharma and a community for people to live in the Dharma. He called this new community the Sangha. The SChOOl central tO thiS community had the strrct reqmrements of celibacy, nonviolence, generosity, and honesty, which together served as the foundation Of its effective transform- ative discipline and earned it the respect of the larger lndian SOCiety. lt created the first monasterres and nunnerles ln human history. As the Buddhist movement grew, these three —the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha (the EnIightened Teacher, the Teaching, and the Community) ー became known as the Three

232 ( 149a ) Padma Sambhava ⅲ the Palace of the Glorious Copper Mounta1n Paradise This tangka contalns many inscriptions that have their source in the Nyingmapa canon, namely in the S ℃〃 C わ 4 々 P な ) ( 工 le'u-bdun-ma) and in the P ビ川 4 た 4 舫 4 〃 g ( 工 padma-bka'-than), Padma Sambhava's hagiography. ln these texts the locality of the paradise in the southwest is described in detail; certainly the geography is mythical and the celestial palace an ideal construction. The entrance for contemplating the tangka is a small scene depicted at the bottom center Of the painting, where Padma Sambhava is parting from his temporal existence and from his disciples and departing for the heavenly fields of Copper Mountain Pure Land (Zandog Palri). Padma Sambhava dances as a winged Heruka on a lotus flower holding a da 川 ar ″ drum in his raised right hand. His left hand, giving blessing to his most intimate consort, Yeshe Tsogyal, rests on her head. Looking in the southwest direction of his paradise, Padma Sam- bhava recltes a prayer of farewellto his attentive disciples, wh0 are deeply moved. The painter leads the viewer's line of sight from Tibet to the far mighty peak, the GIorious Copper Mountain (Zandog PaIri). lt is located on an island, sur- rounded fanlike by eight other islands that are spread according tO the eight directions and protected by the eight lt is said in the 立怩〃 C わ 4 Prayer on top Of the mountain, with its curved protectors Of the heavenly directions. that the reddish shining mountain is golden roofs, rich decoration, small These islands are important places for formed like a human heart, that it steeples, and balconies, 100kS like a meditation. On each Of them we see a penetrates deep intO the domain Of the Chinese pagoda. Horizontally seen, it burial ground with a stupa and wisdom nagas, touches the domain Of the dakinis forms a mandala resting a four- holders in meditation or in the process ln lts middle sectlon, and extends its colored crossed and ()l*iented tO Of civilizing demons. These wisdom peak to the sphere of the Gods. There the four main directions—・ as are the holders have transmitted their secret we see the four-faced Brahma in his gates 0f the palace, which are guarded knowledge to Padma Sambhava. The palace, while from all sides heavenly by the four protectors Of the directions. main island with the hOly mountain, at dakinis appear in bands on clouds. Gods The Measureless Mansion IS completely the foot of which hermits live in caves, and goddesses ho 旧 banners and transparent, resembling the celestial is separated from the continent by a ceremonial umbrellas, playing muslc Jerusalem in the revelation Of st. JOhn. dark lake. Here is the domain of the and giving offerings. Celestial dancers lt consists Of jewels—white rock-crystal, cannibal た訪 , wild, dark-skinned (ging) with drums welcome Padma yellow beryl, red garnet, and blue lapis men, WhO seem engaged in S01 れ e kind Of Sambhava, while flowers fall from the lazuli—、 vhich make it shine in the cosmrc protecting as well as in carrylng corpses. sky like rain. The triple-storied palace symbolic colors of the mandala. Like the 1 Central Regions, Tibet 18th century Tangka; gouache on COtton 30 x 18 " ( 76.5X46.7cm ) Collection of G. W. Essen, Hamburg Lit. : Essen and Thingo, 1991 , no. 14 , pp. 128 ー 30 ; Tucci, 1949 , pls. 221 ー 23. 0 2 Supplement ・ 476