に・ぐ。 ! を : なド・ . 戳 . : 攣新 : 粤ツ、 105.2 Religious Affairs of H. H. the Dalai Lama, Yamantaka is a developed example of the 1982 , p. 40 ). Both the Drepung wall New Menri style, which came to dominate paintings and this work utilize the power the painting of the Lhasa area during the of simple, broadly handled sh 叩 es and time of the Great Fifth, in the second half tough, thick, even, outline drawing of the 17th century. Effective techniques ( 105.2 ). This style of line and drawing like the glowing whites for the undersides seems tO descend from the style seen in the Of the lotus petals, the rows of toenails, penden Lhamo from the Ford collection, ( 101.1 ) , the skulls, and the intensely which can be dated to before 1642 glaring eyes of Yamantaka, are charac- ( No. 115 ). lt is quite probable that this teristics of this style as well. This whole painting and its engagement with the viewer are totally controlled by the central power of Yamantaka's buffalo head ( 105.2 ). The proJection of massive power IS a main characteristic Of painting Of the central regions at this time; lt is clearly distinguished from the more earthy and subdued styles of Western Tibet and the Joyously bright and atmospheric styles of the eastern reglons Of this time. Catalogue: Buddhist Orders ・ 286

lts dominant relation with the Pala-Sena styles, probably of representatlons Of a Tibetan lama yet known 引 SO appears ln the 12th century, indicate that the image 1S most likely a this stele. The complementary harmony between the prom- work from the central regions. lt is also similar tO a bronze inent, smooth volumes Of the form and the intricately but richly fashioned details 0f the ornamentation in both 0f these sculpture photographed by Tucci in Zinchi monastery in U (Tucci, 1973 , fig. 161 ). The figure's grace in posture and stone sculptures iS character1Stic Of the naturalism based on proportion and the heavy ornamentation are typical Of the Pala styles of this time. Pala lineage, but certain elements are also related to Western The remarkably rendered yogi statue in fig. 8 , probably Tibetan forms, such as the asymmetrical positioning of the dating in the 12th century, has some stylistic similarities tO the two stone images, but has a slightly more abstract quality. lower garment with its central hems pulled tO one side, and lt is possibly the depiction 0f a Great Adept (Mahasiddha), the sheets 0 日 ong , curled hair, similar to the Manjushri perhaps padampa Sangyey, taken by Tibetans as one 0f the Lhakhang images at Alchi. Such complexity is endemic to the study of Tibetan art, especially in these early periods. Great Adepts (see No. 3 8 ). The impression of controlled and Among the most intriguing and magnificent works Of this concentrated inner energy makes this work particularly expressive Of the Tibetan genius for articulating the powers time are the monumental sculptures at lwang and Nesar monasteries in Tsang ( fig. 9 ). They appear to be rare remams of the yogi. SO effectively captured in many later examples throughout Tibetan art, the powerful concentration 0f the yogi reflecting an influential artistic relationship with the art of KhOtan in Central Asia. lnscriptlons at lwang state the is here dramatically rendered in the smooth swelling volumes and intense facial expresslon Of this distinctive early example, presence 0f 、 'lndian and Kh0tanese" styles. Tucci, wh0 first perhaps the oldest yet known in Tibetan sculpture. Along with photographed and studied these images, surmised that the unusual style 0f the drapery of the Buddha and Bodhisattva the emphasis on the figure's lnternal concentratlon, there iS an equal stress on the external. His wide-open eyes and spiky statues probably represented a Khotanese style. 6 This is most locks Of hair seem tO radiate energy from within. This statue likely the case, although the evidence 1S scant and little is IS a superlative example Of the intense yet composed quality known about Khotanese art. KhOtan was a flourishing oaSIS city along the southern that characterizes Tibetan art. A number 0f metal sculptures, mostly small and mostly 0f SiIk Route through CentraI Asia. lt was noted for its large Bodhisattvas, form another important group in this periOd. Mahayana Buddhist centers from early times and was They are generally closely related to the Pala-Sena lndian especially prosperous during the Tang period ( 618 ー 906 ). As lmages, especially those from Benga い One example, the known from literary records, Tibet had a special relation with Khotan from the period of the Religious Kings. Artists are Avalokiteshvara in NO. 29 , ShOWS character1st1CS pertaimng tO said to have come to Tibet from Khotan to help build the sculptures from bOth the central regions and Western Tibet. Buddhist monastenes and make the Buddhist images. Most of the anclent art Of KhOtan no longer survlves and we are left mainly with Chinese writings that speak Of the marvelous qualities 0f its art. The Kh0tanese style is especially noted for its figural representations showing masses 0f light drapery distinguished by closely parallel soft pleats. The Kh0tanese style had considerable influence on Chinese Buddhist art from as early as the 7th century, but from around the late 12th through the 14th century it became a major style in Chinese Buddhist art. 7 Several elements of the lwang and Nesar sculptural style seem tO support a Khotanese stylistic source and a late 12th- to 13th-century dating for these special sculptures. The narrow parallel clusters 0f limpid drapery folds seen in the magnificent Buddha in fig. 9 suggest the descriptions 0f the special Khotanese drapery style and relate tO a certaln extent tO images in Chinese art also associated with the Khotanese style, except the Chinese vanants usually shOW more movement. Furthermore, some elements relate tO Kashmiri- style sculptures from the 1 lth t0 12th century. For example, the medallion designs ln raised stucco on the garments Of some of the lwang and Nesar figures (Tucci, 1973 , figs. 159 , 162 ー 163 ; L. G. Govinda, 1979 , I, pp. 45 ー 46 ) suggest parallels with the silver and copper inlay designs known ln Kashmiri-style metal sculptures from the 9th t0 12th century, though most prominently in the 1 lth- and 12th-century examples probably associable with Western Tibet. Also, the types 0f crowns with large U-shaped supports are related t0 those appearmg in Kashmiri-style sculpture, particularly 0f the 1 lth to 12th century. 8 While these elements help t0 suggest a possible late-12th-century dating for the lwang and Nesar images, they alSO indirectly indicate a possible source for these 、三驫吩い 7 第 Fig. 8. Yogi (Padampa Sangyey?). Central regions of Tibet. 12th century. Brass, H. 12 防 " ( 31.8 (m). Robert HatfieId Ellsworth private Collection. (photo: Young H. Rhie) Tibetan Buddhist Art ・ 46

The early Jokhang wall paintings provide important remains for distinguishing and defining the painting styles of the central regions. They demonstrate not only a general stylistic compatibility with Western Tibetan pamting 0f the time but also clearly reveal the special character Of the central regional style. AIthough distinctly different from Western Tibetan paintings, the style 0f these central Tibetan J0khang paintings generally relates tO the graceful, SIOW curves apparent in the linear style of the Tabo wall paintings of ca. the 1040S , but without the heavy line of the Tabo style ( fig. 5 ). Similarly, certain elements relate tO the paintings in the Sumtsek at い Alchi but with far less interest in the minute details of textiles and jewelry (Pal, 1982 , S66 ). The Jokhang paintings 引 so have some similarities tO motifs in Chinese Buddhist art. The style of the background flowers, for example, relates to the flower designs painted on the ceiling 0f the Lower Huayansi (Hua-yen ssu) in Datong, northern Shansi, near the Chinese border with Mongolia, dated 1038 (Sekino and Takeshima, 1934 ー 1944 , I, 鬢ト fig. 47 ). A distinctive style of the central regions emerges in these early J0khang paintings. The unified, elegant simplicity of the full and regularly proportioned bodies complemented by the restrained curves of the relatively plain ornaments especially characterizes this style, which clearly represents the major elements Of the distinctively sophisticated styles Of paintmg in the central regions as they develop in the 12th century. Closely related to the style of the Jokhang wall paintings, but with more refinement and increased elaboration, which suggests a slightly more developed style, are the Green Tara in No. 24 and the lama portrait in No. 95 , both in the collection of Mr. and Mrs. John GiImore Ford, as well as the Vairochana tangka recently acquired by the Cleveland Museum ( fig. 11 ). They all probably date from the 12th century. The style of the Fig. 9. Buddha, main image of the central chapel, lwang monastery, Tsang, in the central regions of Tibet. Ca. late 12th to early 13th century. Stucco. Photographed by Li Gotami Govinda in 1947. (photo: Lama and Li Gotami Foundation, Munich, Germany) motifs in Khotanese art. BOth Tibet and Kashmir, being in close contact with Khotan, could have received similar influences from Khotan. Although there does not seem to have been a continuation 0f this special style in Tibet, elements of the style, such as the raised medallion designs, appear in other sculptures like those at Kyangphu monastery of the 13th century (). G. Govinda, 1979 , I, pp. 41 ー 43 ; Tucci, 1989a , III, figs. 25 , 26 , 29 , 30 , 31 ). However, this unusual and splendid group of stucco lmages from lwang and Nesar forms an important, distinc- tively different ingredient among the other sculptural styles predominantly related t0 lndian and Nepalese art during this early periOd Of the second Transmiss10n in the central reglons. Paintings from the central regions of Tibet of this period are some Of the finest masterworks of Tibetan art. Though most surVIVe as tangkas, a few 、 paintings are known. some tangkas just recently commg to light may date from the late 1 lth century, and in the Jokhang temple in Lhasa there are a few exceedingly rare wall paintmgs that may be among the earliest remalns Of wall paintlngs in the central regions, possibly dating in the late 11 th or early 12th century ( fig. 10 ). The remalns are scant and the evidences for dating few and far between. However, a group of Tibetan style paintings from the Central Asian site of Khara Khoto now in the collection of the Hermitage in Leningrad provide invaluable materials for this period, especially in relation to the painting of the central regrons 0f Tibet. Fig. 10. Bo 渤な酣れ観 , wall painting, Jokhang, Lhasa. Ca. late 11 市 to early 12th century. (photo: Xizang gongye qianchu kanze shejuyuan, D 破房 0 Beijing, 1985 , fig. on p. 77 ) 47 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art

attendant figures, though related to the willowy figures of the Tsang region, contains the essence Of the 14th-century abstract 12th- and 13th-century paintings of the centralregions ( fig. power, while drawing toward the naturalistic styles apparent 11 ) , incorporate a slightly Chinese-style fluid garment style. in the sculptures of the peljor Chöde at Gyantse from the This tangka probably relates most strongly to the central second quarter Of the 15th century. lt affords an instructive reglOns and may well indicate a schOOl associated with a contrast with the Yongle period ( 1403 ー 1425 ) sculptural style Nyingmapa monastery in the late 14th t0 early 15th century. as represented by the large gilt Virupa statue in the Cleveland Museum (Béguin et al, 1977 , p. 104 ). Sculpture Several excellent gilt Bodhisattva statues photographed at ln the central regions the sculpture of this time, like the Shalu monastery testify to the beautiful style of gilt Bodhi- painting, is characterized by a diversity 0f styles. The Padma sattva statues of this period in the Tsang region (Henss, 1981 , Sambhava and Amitayus sculptures at the Drigung monastery p. 141 , figs. 47 , 48 ) , the fig. 47 image probably dating in the (Liu, 1957 , figs. 59 , 60 ) are important remains oflarge- 14th century and the image in fig. 48 to the early 15th sized sculptures, possibly dating in the early part of the 14th century. Although they both reveal clear stylistic links t0 century. The figures, which are big and well proportioned, contemporary Nepalese sculpture, they have an intensity and reveal an assimilation Of Chinese drapery modes similar tO sharp clarity 0f line that is typically Tibetan. that seen in the tangkas of the same monastery ( fig. 15 ) and in Western Tibet during the 13th to early 15th centuries the Buddha paintings on the entrance wall of the Lotsawa produced some Of Tibet'S most lnteresting and distinctlve Lhakhang at AIchi, probably dating to the 14th century (Pal, sculptures, many 0f which portray the iconography of the Five 1982 , LL6). The delicately textured raised stucco borders on Transcendent Buddhas. These represent prob ably the mo st the robes Of the Amitayus statue are similar to those decor- concentrated examples in sculptural form Of the Five ating the hems of the ca. mid-14th-century Arhat in NO. 12. Transcendent Buddhas, which was a theme equally popular in Both examples of Arhat sculptures included in this book painting in the 12th- t0 early 13th-century tangkas 0f the (Nos. 15 , 16 ) are probably of Chinese origin. They reveal two central regions. Sculptures Nos. 13 8 , 139 , 140 , 142 , and 143 different stylistic types prevalent in the 14th century. The in the Cosmic Buddha section, together with the Newark Arhat Bhadra ( No. 15 ) shows the Khotanese-styIe drapery Museum Vajrasattva ( No. 131 ) , partially demonstrate a configuration with its distinctive close, parallel, SOft, and wavy fo 旧 s. This striking style was noted earlier in relation to the Khotanese-style sculptures of lwang and Nesar monasteries. lt was a popular style in the late 13th t0 early 14th century in China, the probable date for this beautiful small sculpture. The Arhat KaIika ( No. 16 ) , however, reveals the powerful chunky forms of Chinese sculpture appearing in the late 14th century, in the early years 0f the Ming dynasty. The period of the 13th to the early 15th century offers some Of the most remarkable Tibetan sculptures Of the Great Adepts (Mahasiddhas) and archetype deities 川 ). Such works as Nos. 38 , 55 , and 78 , as well as fig. 16 , all possess a powerful inner vitality radiating from the solid, rather abstract volumes characteristic 0f this time. The Ford Vajrapani ( NO. 55 ) , probably dating in the late 13th to early 14th century, lunges with greater force in lts smooth and bulging form than earlier sculptures such as the Zimmerman Shamvara in NO. 68 of ca. the late 12th to early 13th century. There is 引 so lncreased linear decorative lnterpretation Of the facial features in the Vajrapani. The strong outlining and somewhat masklike appearance of the face of the Padampa Sangyey ( NO. 3 8 ) from the mid-14th century appears as a further developed style in the Zimmerman MiIarepa statue ( No. 78 ) , which closely relates in its broad planes and selective linear style tO the figures in the Raktayamari mandala datable t0 the end 0f the 14th century ( No. 75 ). The sense of mass in the Milarepa statue is concordant with those developments in the late 14th century that culminate in the grand colossal sculptures Of the Kumbum at Gyantse of ca. the second quarter 0f the 15th century ( fig. 18 ). The Virupa statue in fig. 16 , probably dating late 14th t0 early 15th century, combines a strong masklike appearance ln the face and decorative touches in the depiction Of the hair with a heightened awareness 0f volume in the chunky, rounded, cubic bOdy. lt 引 SO reveals an lncreased naturalism in the mobile stretching of the large mouth and the wiry flexing of the arm muscles. This superb sculpture, probably from the Fig. 16. Ⅵ . Early 15th century. Brass, H. 10 防 " ( 26.6 (m). Private collection. (photo: Marylin M. Rhie) 53 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art

Fig. 22. 立た L の〃鶤 upper floor, left chapel, Peljor Chöde at Gyantse' Tsang. Ca. 2nd quarter 0f the 15th century. (photo: Edwin Bernbaum' 1983 ) Indo-Nepalese style, probably mostly in Sakyapa monasteries. These paintings reveal a marked tendency toward dramatlc simplification, with the incorporation Of some elements Of naturalism, especially in the modeling 0f the main figures. Examples like the Yamantaka in NO. 104 employ the two- dimensional, hieratical composltlon with a dominant central figure. But elements like the strong, effective modeling in the Yamantaka figure and his vigor Of movement make him stand out more forcefully and dramatically and a little more naturalistically against the stylized background 0f flame patterns. These factors indicate the gradual changes underway in this 、、 classical" style. Other paintings of a slightly later date, such as the father- mother Shamvara and Vajravarahi in NO. 70 , reveal a similar interest in modeling as Wltnessed in the Yamantaka' but present images with a slim, sophisticated elegance Of propor- tion, 1 れ ore refined ornamentatlon, and a greater sense Of easy articulation in their movement. The beautiful painting on silk Of Hevajra and consort in the Musée Guimet (Béguin et 引 , 1977 , p. 51 ) , probably dating into the 16th century and executed in China or Eastern Tibet, partakes 0f a developed vanant regional interpretation Of the same tendencies displayed in the Shamvara tangka ( No. 70 ). Tibetan art from this middle period in its history reached a high point, bOth in terms Of output and in monumentality, 57 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art particularly in the splendid products 0f the monasteries 0f Tsang. The works of the Kumbum and the Peljor Chöde are landmarks in the history Of Tibetan art and served as in- spirrng models for more than a century tO come. The fusion of the Indo-Nepalese styles and the more naturalistic styles filtering in from Chinese sources begins at this time, though it takes another century before itS potential begins tO be fully realized and developed. Western and Eastern Tibet ln some respects the true inheritor Of the Gyantse Kumbum style, especially in paintlng, seems t0 be the great temple wall pamtings and tangkas produced in western Tibet around the middle and second half of the 15th century. Tucci was the first tO introduce tO the west these magnificent works Of the revived Guge dynasty in Western Tibet with its capital at Tsaparang. 11 The refined epitome 0f the elegant Gyantse style combined with the ethereal and charming styles characteris- tic Of the Western Tibetan tradition that had flowered SO brilliantly in the 1 lth century can be discerned in the wall paintings 0f the Red Temple and in many 0f the tangkas Tucci himself acquired at Tsaparang. The wall paintings of the Red Temple, as well as those in ThoIing ( fig. 23 ) and in the Serkhang hall at Tabo in Spiti, show a sophisticated, monumental style related tO that Of the Tibet. 2nd half of the 15th century. (photo: Edwin Bernbaum, 1988 ) Fig. 23. P 〃々 ara 襯″ 4 , wall painting, Th01ing monastery, Western

regions Of Tibet. HO 、 vever, in the Khara KhOtO paintings the colors tend t0 be sharper and the drawing is less refined in some cases. Eight Of these rare works Of Tibetan style from the Hermitage collection Of Khara Khoto materials are presented in this book: Nos. 21 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 128 , 133 , and 135 , which are pamtings, and No. 23 , a tapestry of Green Tara in the た e technique. There is considerable stylistic varratlon among the Tibetan group 0f Khara Kh0t0 paintings. This prob ably indicates that there were many different hands working over several generatlons as well as diverse stylistic sources for the art. One of the most powerful and important examples is the fe- male Buddha deity Vajravarahi in No. 93 , possibly the most amanng representation 0f this deity yet known. The big- bodied red image, garbed only in bone jewels, dances before a flickering red halo of flames, brandishing the skull bowl and the vajra chopper. The style of her massive body, as well as the profuse and refined ornamentation, depicted with gossamer white lines, clearly relates tO styles seen in the 12th- to mid-13th-century sculpture of Orissa, in Eastern lndia, and in the temple sculptures Of the same period made under the Hoysala dynasty at Belur and Halebid, in Karnataka, South lndia. Since most of the Khara Kh0t0 Tibetan-style paintings seem tO relate tO the painting styles from the central regions Of Tibet, this may indicate the presence of Orissan and Hoysalan styles in the art Of the central regions as well. However, with regard tO the Khara KhOtO paintings, sources Other than the central regions Of Tibet cannot be ruled out: for example, Nepal or possibly Eastern Tibet, about which as yet we have little knowledge. lt is alSO interesting to note that the particular Orissan and Hoysalan style mentioned in reference tO the Vajravarahi in NO. 93 seems tO be continued in later works, such as some of the Yongle period ( 1403 ー 1425 ) sculptures made in China in the early 15th century ( NO. 76 ) and in many spectacular paintings 0f the mid-15th century from the central regions of Tibet, such as No. 104. ln these cases we see the art from Orissa and South lndia, rather than from the Pala dynasty in northeastern lndia, apparently being an influential part ln some Tibetan-style art. The Bodhisattva attendant in No. 21 of the Khara Khoto group, a repaired fragment from a once-larger palntmg, exhibits the willowy, curved body and charming simplicity typical 0f many 0f the attendant figures in 12th-century tangkas from the central regions of Tibet ( fig. 11 ). The expression 0f the face, with its broad and slightly angular mouth, is a type common t0 the Pala images of ca. the 1 lth to 12th century, especially of the BengaI region. This figure also closely matches figures in the wall paintings at lwang, in the hall with the large stucco images (Tucci, 1973 , fig. 124 ) , thus lending further credence to a probable late 12th-century dating for that important temple hall and its images. FinaIIy, the Khara Khoto Medicine Buddha tangka ( No. 133 ) has an mteresting representation of the Black Hat Karmapa in the lower left corner. Since the first BIack Hat Karmapa is said tO have received the special black hat worn only by him from the Dakinis (SkywaIkers) at the time of his enlightenment (ca. 1160 ) , it would indicate a dating for this pamting after that time and make this work particularly important for chronological data. N0t only is the Khara Kh0to group 0f Tibetan-style paintings a treasure from a Central Asian kingdom that had a relation with Tibetan Buddhism at this time, it iS alSO a rich resource for helping tO establish the stylistic dating and iconographic types of Tibetan art during this difficult but consequential early period. THE 13TH TO 14TH CENTURY Ⅸ THE CENTRAL AND WESTERN REGIONS OF TIBET This periOd is an active one, lnternally and externally, for Tibet and for Tibetan art. The Buddhist monastic institutions established during the prevlous two centunes were flourishing and most Of the sacred writings had been translated. lnter- nationally, the rise 0f the Mongols, which transformed Asia in the 13th century, also involved Tibet, though not as disas- trously as other regions 0f Asia. During the 13th century Tibet had increased relations and commumcatlons with China, especially through the Mongols and with the Mongol Yuan dynasty ( 1279 ー 1368 ). SeveraI noted Tibetan lamas became personal preceptors t0 the Mongolleaders, such as Sakya Pandita ( 1182 ー 1251 ) , Tibet's great Sakyapa scholar (see No. 66 ) , to Godan Khan, and Pakpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew, to KhubiIai Khan. Though relations between Tibet and China declined after the early 14th century, the contacts with China had a decided, if as yet limited, impact on Tibetan Buddhist art. A number Of remaining monuments, paintlngs, and sculp- tures that are of Tibetan style from the 13th to the 14th century in China testify t0 the influence Tibetan Buddhism and its arts had on the culture of the Yuan dynasty in China. TO cite one example, in Hangzhou, in southern China, num- erous Tibetan-style images were carved in the cliffs and grottoes 0f the Feilaifeng mountain in the late 13th century and a great wood-block edition of the Tripitaka (the Buddhist canon) in Tibetan style was made there in ca. the early 14th century. The famous Juyong Guan gate dated 1345 , in the mountalns north Of Beijing, capital Of the Yuan, is decorated with monumental relief sculptures in Tibetan style Of the mandalas of the Five Transcendent Buddhas. ln the city of Beijing the well-known landmark of the Beita pagoda was buiit by the famous Nepalese artist Aniko ( 1245 ー 1306 ) , who had been personally recommended by Pakpa and had established a flourishing workshop in Beijing that also produced sculptures. ln China's northwest, some of the last maJ0r caves executed at Dunhuang (caves 465 and 113 ) and some 、 paintlngs in Other caves in the Gansu provmce area further attest to the considerable impact of Tibetan Buddhist art in China during this time. Tibet in the second half of the 14th century was ruled by thirteen myriachies (small, basically autonomous, kingdoms), with the principal ones in the hands 0f the Pakmodrupa, a subsect 0f the Kagyupa. ln Western Tibet the Nepalese Kasiya- Malla, who had exerted control over much Of the region S1nce the 12th century, were collapsing by the late 14th century as some regrons Of western Tibet 、 becomrng autonomous kingdoms. ln Tibetan art the dominant styles continued tO be related t0 the Ind0-Nepalese traditions, but the infusion 0f Chinese art1Stic elements begins t0 appear from the mid-14th century with some regularity and importance, mostly in the central regions. ThiS iS especially noticeable with respect tO the theme and style of the Arhats, enlightened Buddhist monks whO remaln in this world tO maintain the Buddhist teachings until the time of the next Buddha. Chinese elements also appear in landscape depiction and in figure styles utilizing loosely draped garments unlike the tightly fitted or simply draped ones of the Indo-Nepalese styles. Tibetan Buddhist Art ・ 50

with respect tO bOth its unsurpassed wall paintings and its stylistically diverse and spirited sculptures. Although there appears tO be a more or less steady production Of sculpture and some paintings during the 13th and 14th centuries in Western Tibet, it is not until the second half of the 15th century, during the Guge revival, that western Tibet experl- ences agam a magnificent flowermg Of itS art on a scale comparable to that 0f the 1 lth century. The Central Regions of Tibet: Ⅱ th to 13th Century ln 1045 , after spending three years in Western Tibet, Atisha came tO the central regions Of Tibet, where he became the spiritual founder of the Kadam Order and the major impetus in the rejuvenation of Buddhism in the provmces of U and Tsang. His main disciple, Drom Tonpa (). 1064 ) , established the first Kadampa monasteries after Atisha's death in 1054. ln the latter half of the 1 lth and into the 12th century, various Other orders and their monasteries were established throughout the central regions. From MiIarepa ( 1040 ー 1123 ) and his teacher Marpa ( 1012 ー 1095 ) grew the branches of the Kagyupa; from Drokmi ( 992 ー 1072 ) and the Khon family the Sakyapa developed, with their maln monasteries in Tsang. These orders, along with the Nyingma Order, whose roots stem from the period of the ReIigious Kings, established a firm Buddhist monastic foundation in Tibet, translated sacred texts, and assimilated the practices and art of the major lndian and Nepalese Buddhist sources. Many of the venerated sites of Buddhism as well as the great Buddhist monastIC universitles were in the central and eastern reglons 0f lndia, particularly the region under the rule of the Palas. These areas of lndia were linked to the central regions of Tibet by the main trade routes passing through Nepal. The pnmary inspirational sources Of the Buddhist art for these central regions Of Tibet thus became the central and north- eastern areas Of lndia, and Nepal. However, there are Other sources as well, which complicate the situatlon, SO usually they must be ascertained on an individual basis for nearly every work. Because 0f such diversity, it is difficult t0 define the art of this period in one all-inclusive way. AIthough further studies are needed t0 clarify this complex period, a few lmportant works can provide some indication Of the different styles among the sculpture and painting Of the central regions, which are ln many ways quite distinct from those Of Western Tibet. 3 ln the sculpture of the 1 lth to 13th century in the central reglons, there are a number Of different stylistic groups, Of ln most cases the styles relate tO sources from the art of the PaIa dynasty (ca. 750 ー 1155 ) in northeastern lndia, and their successors, the Senas (mid-12th to mid-13th century), but one maJOr group shows apparent links tO the art Of Khotan, on the southern Silk Route in CentraI Asia. The standing Maitreya Bodhisattva ( fig. 7 ) photographed at Narthang monastery in Tsang in the 1950S and said to be dated 1093 (Liu, 1957 , fig. 65 ) is a prime early sculpture of the central regions. The smooth, well-unified body in its gentle, composed stance contrasts with the wiry and alert characteristics Of most Western Tibetan sculptures, as seen for instance in NO. 28 ; it contrasts 引 so with the slightly elongated figures with naturalistic muscular definition Of the Western Tibetan Alchi style as seen in the CleveIand Museum's AvaIokiteshvara ( No. 127 ) and seated Buddha ( No. 136 ). Ornamentation is elaborate but refined, and the face is sculpted with a sharpness and perfection unlike either the usually softer Kashmiri style or the somewhat mystical strangeness 0f the Himachal Pradesh-type Western Tibetan style of NO. 28. Stylistically, this Maitreya statue derives from the 5th-century Sarnath sculpture of the Gupta period in central lndia, but is also related t0 such Pala styles as that 0f the 9th-century SyIhet Bodhisattva (Asher, 1980 , p. 253 ) and Nepalese sculpture 0f the 1 Oth t0 11 th century. ln its plain simplicity it is also strikingly similar t0 figures in early Tibetan tangkas of the central regions ( fig. 11 ). A few extraordinary sculptures carved in a fine black or yellow sedimentary stone, usually marked with Tibetan inscriptlons, have appeared in recent years. some are closely related to Pala sculpture of the 1 lth to 12th century, though there is no certalnty as tO the carver or place Of origin. 4 The Tara stele and the Mahakala in the Ellsworth collection (Nos. 22 , 52 ) are superlative examples of these. The exceptional and umque Tara stele iS a particularly interestlng representation Of religious practice embodied in art: There is one Tara for each of the twenty-one verses in praise of Tara from the popular 厩 text. What may be one of the oldest sculptural Fig. 7. Ma ″尾坦 Bo 渤なな , Narthang monastery, Tsang, in the central regions 0f Tibet. Ca. 1093. (photo: Liu l-se, ed. , X た 4 〃 g 厄ノ 0 なんィ , Beijing, Wenwu chubansha, 1957 , fig. 65 ) 45 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art

ln the second half of the 18th century and into the early 19th century, paintings 0f Pure Lands become more prevalent; they are filled with details of palaces and deities presented as if viewed from a high vantage pomt, with perspective-suggesting architecture (Nos. 149 , 153 ). Lineage tangkas, such as that of the Refuge Tree of Tsong Khapa ( No. 154 ) , begin to assume the formality of well-established compositionaltypes, but they are still portrayed with vigor and finesse. The art pro- duced in China of Tibetan style, especially during the Qianlong period ( 1735 ー 1796 ) , is quite profuse, but it begins tO shOW increasing formalization. Despite the tendency tO rigidity and repetitive lack Of inspiration, the art is not with- out great beauty in its delicate detail and SOlid sense Of power and grandeur, as shown in Nos. 100 , 106 , 126 , and 134. ln the 19th century, palnting develops many diverse trends with a wide range of iconography. Generally, the styles 0f the 19th century contmue with some modifications and elaborations toward a settled formality that stresses a new reality based on the idealism of the 18th-century styles. Paintings such as the splendid set of Milarepa tangkas in StockhoIm of the late 18th to early 19th century (Nos. 82 , 83 , 152 ) and the Parinirvana tangka from the Asian Art Museum ( No. 9 ) reveal how successful and beautiful this formalism can be: the idealism of the 18th century is fashioned into a new, unique kind 0f reality by the sheer force 0f pristine clarity 0f forms, graceful line, and vivid colors, thus creating a world at once far fror れ our own but nevertheless echoing it a para- disiacal way. The Sertrap in NO. 121 , possibly from Eastern Tibet, continues the powerful styles known in the 17th century with a stronger and harsher coloration that makes it burst forth with a forced yet intriguing energy. The Virginia Museum of Fine Arts's King of Shambhala ( No. 43 ) represents a style that stresses the lyrical whimsy 0f line, and the Royal Ontario Museum's TempIes of Lhasa ( No. 155 ) illustrates the dominance Of landscape and architecture in a panoram1C V1ew Of the sacred monasteries Of Lhasa. The genre Of grand VISta lncorporatlng many scenes or elements aISO appears ln the final two paintings of the book: the Shambhala and the Offerings to Mahakala (Nos. 157 and 158 ) , two popular themes of 19th-century Tibetan art. They exemplify the tendency tO incorporate narrative idioms and tO portray symbols as part of the formalistic trends 0f the time. The NOTES 1. The Dukhang of Tabo is generally accepted as founded ca. 996 or 1008 (Klimburg-Salter, 1982 , pp. 157 ー 64 ). Pritzker ( 1989 , pp. 39 ー 41 ) suggests a dating of ca. 1042 for the wall paintings, reflecting the 、、 renovations" Of Jang Chup 0 , as stated in an inscription in the Dukhang. 2. Alchi monastery was founded in the mid-l lth century by Kelden Sherap, a follower of Rinchen Sangpo, and the monk Tsultrim Sher 叩 (Snellgrove and Skorupski, 1977 , pp. 30 ー 31 , 47 ー 48 ; Pal, 1982 , pp. 11 ー 17 ). 3. Tibetan histories, such as Ko 〃 g な 4 な E 〃 0 日 0 d 朝可ん do - 石〃 Cu ″ 4 尾 , describe two maJor styles in early Tibetan art: the Kashmiri Kache style and the Nepalese Beri style, each of which is said to have three substyles (). Chandra, 1970 , p. 42 ). Without detailed descriptions and actual works as references, it iS difficult tO utilize this classification at present except a qualified and tentative way. One of the clearest subtypes of the Nepalese Beri style is called the Sarthun, referring to the pala art 0f lndia, which, as can be seen in numerous examples, was a m 明 or source for the art ()f the central 65 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art monumental Size Of these paintlngs lncreases their spectacular and dramatic attraction, and the sacred symbols and holy places assume an abstract, timeless identity and power over the viewer. Throughout its course, Tibetan Buddhist art has striven for the integration Of the phenomenal and the transcendent as its ultimate aesthetic principle. ThiS has perhaps been most successfully achieved in masterworks Of painting, where the style itself portrays this integration. ln the early styles 0f painting developed from the lnd0-Nepalese artist1C traditions, the transcendent world Of the deity is depicted as tWO- dimensional space, making it basically unreal or otherworldly tO us. ln contrast, the deities and figures are rendered in such a way that they represent the phenomenal: They are so sensitively and realistically portrayed as tO seem lmmediate and totally real. These deity-forms project outward int0 our world, where they appear astonishingly active and compelling. The vivid realism of the figures and the abstract, simple, unreal, two-dimensional world Of pure color are compatibly fused tO create an undifferentiated unity Of the transcendent and the phenomenal. ln the later styles of Tibetan painting, which developed from assimilating elements Of the Chinese artistic traditions, the approach is different, though the idea 0f integration is the same. The phenomenal world is now represented by a three- dimensional setting, which is easily equatable with our own world. But we do not readily conceive of the deity as residing ln our world, SO the three-dimensional settlng iS idealized or made fantastlc in order tO harmomze more closely with the conception Of the deity in the transcendent realm. At the same time the deity iS made more humanlike by itS more naturalistic, less hieratic proportioning with respect tO the setting and by increasing the naturalism Of its form and its loose and fluttering garments. ln this way the idealized naturalistic beauty Of the deity is made tO harmonlze with the idyllic beauty of the landscape setting. The resulting compatibly integrated deity and landscape readily draw the V1e 、 ver intO their world, intO a sublime and uplifting umty with what seems tO be the perfected universe —the Pure Land of the Buddhist vision— of which we become a welcome and lntlmate part. ASian art Of the time. The Tibetan verS1011 as seen in lwang and sculpture and painting, possibly due t0 some impetus from Central la に 12 市 to early 14 [ h century it became a dominant style in ト 0 市 8th century it continued in Chinese art as a special style, but in the famous Khotanese painter Weizhi Yiseng (Wei-chih l-seng). From the least the 7 市 century, when it was made popular in China by the 7. The Kh0tanese style has been known from Chinese sources from at Govinda, 1979 , I, pp. 44 ー 47. 6. Tucci, 1973 , figs. 159 , 162 , 163 ; Tucci, 1949 , I, figs. 75 ー 77 ; L. G. mostly from Sakya; Essen and Thingo, 1989 , fig. 36. 5. Examples of this group include: Tucci, 1973 , figs. 143 , 151 ー 153 , found in Pala lndian sculpture ( . , pp. 40 ー 41 ). were carved by Tibetans because Of certain StyliStiC elements not their Sarthun early-period classification, and they believe these works and/or used by Tibetans. S. and J. Huntington place this group in 4. They usually have Tibetan inscriptions, so they are clearly made pp. 40 ー 41. ) regions in the early period. (See 引 so S. and J. Huntington, 1989 ,

Although it is assumed that Buddhist monasteries and art were developing in Eastern Tibet during this period, little concrete evidence about them iS available yet. However, brief mention should at least be made 0f important developments in Tibetan pamting which seem tO be taking place in Eastern Tibet or China that show a strong lnspirational source from painting of the early part of the Ming period ( 1368 ー 1644 ). Two Arhat paintings, possibly Eastern Tibetan, both in private collections,12 clearly exhibit the use of 15th-century Ming style landscape for the settings of the Arhat figures. The paintings present a closeup, unified, single landscape view, and provide an ample foreground plane for the main subject, the seated Arhat, wh0 is asymmetrically rather than centrally placed and is in moderately natural proportion tO the ambient landscape. The elements Of trees, flO 、 vers, and rocks are executed with decoratively beautiful and profuse naturalistic details. The overlapping rocky precipices are clearly related to the styles exhibited by the Drigung tangkas of the 14th century ( fig. 15 ). However, they are utilized with the early Ming sense of the illusion of atmospheric distance, while actually stressing a two-dimensional clarity and patterning. 13 The eastern areas of Tibet must surely be credited with foster- ing the employment Of naturalistic landscape as an appropriate setting for Buddhist subjects, perhaps as illustrated by these Arhat paintings —a particularly challenging feat that comes to preoccupy the artists and dominate the developments in Tibetan art from the late 16th century. THE 16TH CENTURY Art works are known from all three Of the maln reglons of Tibet from this period, reflecting a wide variety of styles. ln Western Tibet, including Guge, Ladakh, and Zanskar, there is considerable activity, and numerous wall paintings and some excellent tangkas testify to the prosperity of the Buddhist monasteries there. ln Eastern Tibet the rise Of the Karma Gadri style Of painting, known from written sources as a major Tibetan artistic style and associated with the Karmapa branch of the Kagyu Order, arises in the second half of the 16th century. 、 lost prolific, however, are the central regions, which seem tO have the most complex stylistic trends. Many styles are associated with the Sakyapa, but several interesting variants, probably attributable to the Drigung Kagyupa and the Nyingmapa, 引 so appear. The clear regionalization in the art Of this period reflects a similar political disunity, yet despite this, there is some lnterrelationship among the reglons as the art in general moves ln var1011S 、 toward the expressron Of a more powerful naturalism. Painting ⅲ Western Tibet Buddhism and Buddhist art continued to flourish in Western Tibet throughout the 16th and into the mid-17th century. wall paintings and tangkas survlve quite large numbers from Ladakh and surrounding regions, such as those from the monasteries 0f Basgo, Piyang, Likir, and Lamayuru, as well as from Karsha and Phugtal monasteries in Zanskar. 14 From the Guge, the rare, probably contemporaneous, portrait painting of the Third DaIai Lama ( No. 97 ) is a fine representative from the middle phase of the Guge renaissance. Since the painting can be confidently dated to ca. the third quarter of the 16th century (see entry,No. 97 ) , it is Of major importance not only in understanding the developments in Western Tibetan painting, 59 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art but alSO in dating paintings from Other regions, such as the Gayadhara ( No. 64 ) from the central regions. ln certain ways this painting 0f the Third Dalai Lama is related to painting styles from the earlier phase 0f the Guge renaissance of ca. the middle and second half of the 15th century, particularly in the fine linear qualities and predom- inantly deep blue and red coloring. However, important developments are apparent. The depiction 0f the loosely folded layers 0f delicate drapery has acquired greater complexity and a generally more naturalistic, three-dimensional quality. The scenes surrounding the main figure, wh0 appears slightly set back intO the picture plane, are imbued with spatial awareness through the simple mountain settings and the architectural arrangements, WhiCh are more profuse than in the earlier examples utilizing schematic registers ( NO. 6 ). The develop- ments probably reflect movements already underway ln painting Of the central regions and Eastern Tibet, but it is this painting that provides the dated evidence Of these important changes occurring around the third quarter 0f the 16th century in Tibetan art. The wall paintings at Tsaparang in the White TempIe and the Yidam TempIe from the first half of the 16th century (Aschoff, 1989 , pp. 152 right—155) stylistically predate this Third Dalai Lama tangka, while those from the SchoIar's TempIe ( . , pp. 136 ー 37 ) date stylistically into the early 17th century. The Guge tangkas and sequence 0f wall paintings from Tsaparang and Th01ing form one of the most important series Of major works showing evolving local styles from the mid-15th to the mid-17 century. Painting ⅲ Eastern Tibet Although documentation for art in Eastern Tibet still remains scarce, some paintings that incorporate Chinese stylistic elements, particularly landscape, are considered most likely to be connected with this region. lt is known that the Karmapas, a subsect 0f the Kagyupa, had close relations with the early Ming emperors in the early 15th century (). Karmay, 1975 , pp. 75 ー 80 ) , and the development of the Karma Gadri style from the second half of the late 16th century in Eastern Tibet is related bOth tO the Karmapas and tO strong Chinese stylistic elements. 、 lost Of the major artists working in this style, noted for itS "distinctive COlors and shading," were Karma Kagyupas in Kham and Amd0 (). Chandra, 1970 , pp. 44 ー 46 ). The main themes of Eastern Tibetan painting appear to be the Arhats, Great Adepts, and Jatakas, the stories of the former lives of Shakyamuni Buddha. Two examples probably indicative of developments in the latter half of the 16th or early 17th century are the Dharmatala in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston ( No. 17 ) and the pair of Great Adepts in the Ford collection ( No. 3 9 ). B0th employ a well-unified composition with significant landscape components. The former, profusely utilizing the brilliant malachite green popular in works from this area, stresses an elaborate tree and pastel clouds. Although these features are known in Ming Buddhist painting from the 15th century, they are 引 so seen in paintings 0f the middle (ca. 1500 ー 1580 ) and late Ming (ca. 1580 ー 1644 ) , with which this pamting has most in common. ln the Ford painting, the fantastic rock shapes, the focus on a few naturalistically portrayed plants, and the advanced naturalism of the figural style clearly reflect styles of mid-Ming period painting. 15 A superb example of the naturalism of the mid-Ming style apparent in the impressive Musée Guimet palnting Of

order. AS Tibetan art IS studied more, these fascinating movements and assoclatlons Will undoubtedly become clearer. Sculpture With regard to sculpture, there is often difficulty in ascertaining the specific region Of its make, although it is becoming possible tO detect several specific stylistic groups. One group seems tO reflect elements Of the naturalism Of the early 15th-century Gyantse Kumbum sculpture and t0 stylize it slightly in angular or curved patterns that are flattened against the form, as displayed in the Western Tibetan sculpture in the White Temple at Tsaparang ( fig. 25 ). These sculptures, largely dating from the late 15th into the first half of the 16th century, also employ rich patterns of chased (engraved) designs, many 0f which appear in lama portrait sculptures (Nos. 62 , 86 , 8 8 ). Other notable examples are in the British Museum and the Essen collection in Hamburg. 18 These works are probably mostly from the central regions, but the Hermitage lama in NO. 8 8 is probably from Eastern Tibet. The Vajradhara and Vajravarahi sculptures in the Newark Museum (Nos. 147 , 113 ) also relate to late 15th- to 16th- century styles and are probably from the central regions. Both reflect some relation t0 Nepalese sculptural styles. Nevertheless, the former has elements of the elongated, ethereal styles of Western Tibetan sculpture of the late 15th century as well as elements 0f drapery style descended from the Yongle sculptures ( No. 30 ). The stiff turning of the scarves is a style seen in the small figures in the Shamvara tangka 0f the late 15th to early 16th century ( No. 70 ). The latter has a particularly sensltive facial expression, which seems tO relate tO the style appearing in the Zimmerman collection tangka in No. 50 of the late 16th century. Correspondences between pamting and sculpture in this period are a major and particularly helpful factor in determining the date and stylistic rewon Of independent sculptures. ln fact, it may be possible with further study t0 link certain groups Of sculptures and tangkas together as belonging tO the same monastery or local regional artistic school. The rare Nairatmya sculpture in the Los Angeles County Museum ( NO. 74 ) , for example, seems stylistically closely related to some secondary figures in the Sakyapa Gayadhara tangka dating ca. the third quarter of the 16th century ( No. 64 ). This could indicate a similar date, reglon, and artistic schOOl for the tWO works. Many lama portrait sculptures from this period 0ffer a fascinatlng study in themselves. Among the numerous variant styles, two examples in this b00k readily reveal two clearly different types from around the middle part of the 16th century. The Zimmerman collection Sakya Lama Sonam Lhundrub ( No. 63 ) is executed in a gorgeous, traditional style of the central regions (probably Tsang), with tight-fitting robes displaying some of the fluid grace 0f line descended from the Gyantse Kumbum sculptural tradition. On the other hand, the Karma Dudzi image in the Los Angeles County Museum ( No. 89 ) , probably from Eastern Tibet and dating later in the 16th century, is alSO related tO some styles Of the Gyantse Kumbum sculpture, but nevertheless reveals a more forceful naturalism in its heavy robes, which are full of tension and mass. Though bOth Of these sculptures possess a sturdy form, the latter's naturalism pr0Jects an added power and immediacy through the stunning layers of thick, folded robes and the forcefully individualistic charactenzatlon. 61 ・ Tibetan Buddhist Art The stage is now set for a synthesis 0f the fully assimilated schematlc traditions Of the Older lndo-Nepalese traditions with the powerful naturalism that was developing ln spurts during the 15th and 16th century in the central regions and from the Chinese-reIated Eastern Tibetan schools. lt is in the 17th century that thiS synthesis comes tO fruition and producing a major new, uniquely Tibetan style that flowers t0 the pre sent day. THE 17TH CENTURY The 17th century was a climactic period historically and artlstically in Tibet. The locus Of power in the central regions of U and Tsang at the beginning of the century was roughly divided between the Karm 叩 a in Tsang and the Gelukpa in U. With the rise of the Fifth DaIai Lama ( 1617 ー 1682 ) , backed by Gushri Khan of the Qoshot Mongols, power became consolidated in 1642 in the hands of the "Great Fifth. ” From this time the Dalai Lamas became the politicalleaders 0f Tibet as well as being the head of the Geluk Order, which spread t0 all parts 0f Tibet under the Fifth Dalai Lama and subsequently became the most powerful religious order in Tibet. ln 1645 the Fifth DaIai Lama began the construction of the Potala palace in Lhasa, ra1Sing it on the remains Of the palace of Songtsen Gambo, Tibet's first great Religious King, on Marpori, the Red Mountain, overlooking Lhasa ( fig. 26 ). ThiS a 、 vesome edifice, with its towering tapered walls, thousand windows, and monumental zigzag staircases, IS one Of the grandest and most powerful architectural structures ln the world. The residence of the DaIai Lamas and the NamgyaI monastery and universlty until the 1950S , it remams tOday an unparalleled reminder of the Tibetan religion embedded within the secular, material world. Painting ⅲ the Central Regions Of Tibet Several datable tangkas indicate the course Of developments ln pamting for this periOd in the central regions: the Ford collection Penden Lhamo, dated before 1642 ( No. 115 ) , the Newark Museum's Ngor Sakya Sonam Gyatso, probably dating ca. 1667 (ReynoIds et al, 1986 , Ⅱ , pp. 154 ー 55 ) , and the Los Angeles County Museum's Kunga Tashi, dating ca ・ 1675 ( No. 65 ). The Ford Penden Lhamo is unquestionably one of the most significant works tO appear in recent years. NOt on is it a maJ0r P1ece 0f evidence for tracing the genre 0f the "black tangka," which appears to have come t0 full flower by the second half of the 17th century, but it is also an example of a prmcipal new directlon in paintmg, which stresses boldly powerful naturalistic figures portrayed with a masterful, thick, even line. The firm line and energetic force Of this new style can also be observed in the Ellsworth collection Vajrapam ( No. 5 8 ) , probably from the first half of the 17th century, and in the Zimmerman collection Yamantaka of the late 17th century ( No. 105 ) , the latter which possesses a roarmg, dynamic power created by solid masses movement and by a thick, masterful line. The style of these tangkas may be associated with the emer- gence 0f the "New Menri" style, which is said t0 have been initiated by Chöying Gyatso (active 1620 ー 1665 ) , who worked for the first Panchen Lama and later became the painter for the Fifth Dalai Lama in Lhasa, where this style flourished. The style generally associated with the fully developed New N'1enri